essay about cultural heritage of nepal

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Cultural Heritage of Nepal

Nepal is a multilingual and multicultural country that preserves hundreds of cultural heritages , emphasizing the importance of cultural heritage of Nepal .

This country, known throughout the world as the home of Mount Everest and Lord Buddha is an intricate garland of the various ethnicity and caste of people who have inhabited the land for millennia.

The country is ruled by diverse dynasties like the Kirant, Lichchhavis, Mallas, and Shah – all with their own distinct cultures and architectures. And these rulers have left various religious, cultural, architectural and natural heritage of Nepal.

These historically important patrimonies provide a glimpse into the rich art and culture of the country and have, therefore, many of sites has been placed under the World Heritage list by UNESCO . 

A visit to Nepal is incomplete without witnessing at least some of these magnificent sites that reflect the rich national heritage of Nepal. Here is a short introduction to those that simply have to be on top of your list of travel destinations . 

Out of the top ten UNESCO world heritage sites in Nepal, seven are situated inside the Kathmandu valley, featuring temples, palaces, and other architecturally important monuments.

Table of Contents

#1: Boudhanath Stupa

#2: swoyambhunath stupa – cultural hertitage of nepal, #3: kathmandu durbar square , #4: bhaktapur durbar square – cultural nepal, #5: patan durbar square,  #6: pashupatinath temple – cultural heritage of nepal, #7:  changunarayan temple, #8: chitwan national park, #9: sagarmatha national park, #10: lumbini – birthplace of buddha in nepal.

With its massive mandala, Boudha – situated to the northeast of the capital city – is the largest spherical Stupa in Nepal. It is the most important shrine for Tibetan Buddhists who visit the site frequently along with other Hindu pilgrims. And, it is also the single largest Chorten in the world.

Made up of large amounts of gold, every part of the monument’s architecture has an abstract spiritual meaning. Surrounded by Tibetan monasteries, souvenir shops, restaurants, and hotels, Boudhanath Stupa is one of the most famous tourist destinations in Nepal , highlighting the importance of national heritage in Nepal in points.

Many visitors experience spiritual peace as they do their ritual circumnavigation of the dome beneath the peaceful wisdom eyes of the Buddha that gaze out at them from within the gilded central tower.

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Situated in the western part of Kathmandu, Swoyambhunath is one of the most distinct, ancient, and important Buddhist pilgrim sites in Nepal. It highlighting Nepal’s cultural heritage.

Indeed it is among the most fascinating architectural jewels in the world. The Great Stupa is said to have been built around 250 B.C. Its white dome symbolizes a spotless gemstone of Nirvana which is an epitome of a typical Buddhist architectural style.

A religiously significant place for both the Newari and Tibetan Buddhists, the complex consists of a stupa plus a number of shrines, temples, and statues (that make up the original monuments) and the Tibetan monastery, library, and museums (that make up the new).

Also, known as the ‘monkey temple’ because of the hundreds of monkeys loitering around the hill, the main Stupa is a dome at the base covered by a cube structure covered by a toran, while above that is the Gajur. A number of shrines, statues, and artifacts adorn the stupa, with a series of praying wheels also around the dome.

Kathmandu Durbar Square, one of the three Durbar squares in the Kathmandu valley,  is a cluster of ancient temples, palaces, courtyards, and streets. Situated in the heart of the capital, the site is surrounded by monuments showing off the cultural and architectural skills of the Newari craftsmen over the past centuries.

Surrounded by various courtyards, the plaza itself is a complex of various temples and palaces made during the Malla and Shah dynasties. Adopted as the royal palace by the first Shah King after he conquered Kathmandu, the square is still considered important as the location of the coronation ceremony of the king of Nepal.

Visiting the museums is a great way of taking a peek into the former ruling dynasties, their lifestyles, cultures, and many other aspects of bygone eras.

The most fascinating part of the square, however, is the Kumari Chowk, the residence of the living goddess Kumari, a young girl chosen as the reincarnation of the Hindu goddess Durga.

The plaza in front of the Bhaktapur palace is another site listed as one of the World Heritage sites in Nepal. The complex consists of the four main squares, namely: Durbar Square, Taumadhi Square, Dattatraya Square, and Pottery Square. It is the most spacious of all the Durbar squares due to the loss of various monuments during the earthquake of 1934.

The main attractions of the square, however, are more intricate and artistic. These include the 55-windowed palace, the Lion’s Gate, the Golden Gate, the Nyatapola Temple, and the Bhairavnath Temple, showcasing many more exquisite examples of the artwork and architectural skills that contribute to the rich cultural heritage in Nepali.

This Durbar square situated in Patan comprises the palace of the Malla kings of Patan. The complex consists of a number of temples along with large bells, idols, and statues facing towards the main palace. The courtyard floor, tiled with red bricks, and the old Newari houses in the surrounding areas, give the complex a very ancient cultural vibe.

The main attraction of the square is Krishna Mandir, a three storey temple with beautiful wooden carvings and twenty-one golden pinnacles, as well as a Bhimsen temple with its three interconnected golden windows, and the Taleju Bhawani temple with its five storey’s and triple roofs.

Pashupatinath, the most sacred of the Hindu temples, is situated on the banks of the Bagmati River to the northeastern side of Kathmandu, representing a significant aspect of the cultural heritage of Nepal in Kathmandu.

It consists of temples, ashrams, inscriptions, idols, and images of various deities built over centuries by different rulers and devotees.

Serving as the seat of the national deity Lord Shiva, the temple is visited by over 700,000 devotees during the Mahashivaratri festival in the month of Falgun.  The Pashupatinath temple courtyard houses about 235 small temples and shrines.

The main temple housing the sacred Shiva Linga is located in a fortified complex and is built in Nepalese pagoda style with cubic construction, beautiful wooden carvings, and roofs of copper covered with gold.  The temple has four doors with a golden pinnacle that gives it a glorious look.

One of the main pilgrim sites for Hindus all over the world, the temple complex is a sacred site of Hindu religion and culture.

The oldest temple of the Kathmandu valley, Changunarayan is a fine example of the stone, wood and metal craftwork to be found in the valley.

The temple lies atop a hill and is dedicated to Lord Vishnu, with the shrines of Lord Shiva, Chhinamasta, Kileshwor, and Krishna located in the courtyard of the main temple. A number of statues and inscriptions are found in the walls and carvings of the complex.

They feature gods, their incarnations, and various other religious symbols.  There are museums in the area that house extremely rare historical, artistic, and cultural objects and photographs.

A true gem from the Lichhavai period (fourth to ninth centuries), Changunaraya Temple is covered in stone, wood, and metal carvings which are found throughout the courtyard surrounding the main temple. This is a living museum that displays the time of 6th century BC.

Chitwan National Park is located 120 miles southwest of Kathmandu and is known as Nepal’s oldest natural heritage site. The journey takes around 5-6 hours by bus from Kathmandu, or you can opt for a 20-minute flight to Bharatpur Airport, followed by a 40-minute drive to the park.

Chitwan is not just a sanctuary for the endangered one-horned rhinoceros and the regal Royal Bengal tiger; it’s a living, breathing testament to biodiversity. Here you can venture on a thrilling jeep safari, weaving through the wilderness, or glide gently down the Rapti River on a canoe, where surprises await around every bend.

Chitwan is like a beautiful painting of nature and culture, where the unique lifestyle of the Tharu community adds a delightful tune to your adventure. It’s not just a place to visit; it’s an immersive journey into the heart of Nepal’s wild beauty, a place where every moment is a celebration of nature’s wonders.

Sagarmatha National Park is situated in the northeastern part of Nepal and it is home to some of the world’s highest mountains, including the iconic Mount Everest. Trekking enthusiasts can indulge in the Everest Base Camp trek, an adventure that showcases the park’s stunning beauty. 

It’s not just a park; it’s a sanctuary of rare Himalayan herbs, vibrant flowers, and elusive wildlife like the iconic Red Panda. Whether you choose to fly to Lukla and trek through the rich forests or take a scenic drive to Jiri, the adventure unfolds against a backdrop of snow-capped peaks and traditional Sherpa hospitality. 

Sagarmatha National Park shows us how nature and the people who live here can endure and do well. It’s like a living proof of how both the land and the local communities can succeed in these high-altitude areas.

Out of all the major attractions and UNESCO cultural heritages of Nepal , the most famous one would have to be Lumbini since it is, after all, birthplace and the home of the Lord Buddha , the preacher of peace to the whole world.

The site of Lumbini comprises a number of temples, monasteries and museums; some that date back centuries ago, and some that are in the middle of construction. The historic site is 4.8 km in length and 1.6 km in width and contains the ruins of ancient monasteries, a Bodhi tree, an ancient sacred bathing pond , and the Ashoka pillar .

This holy site can be reached by a nine-hour drive from Kathmandu, and here you can enjoy the peaceful and serene ambiance of the area while witnessing the birthplace, first steps, and other life experiences of Lord Buddha.

These few heritages that have settled in the land of Nepal showcase the importance of cultural heritage, reflecting ancient history, art, culture, and traditions during the time of our forefathers. These heritages are definite to give you a clearer glimpse of the socio-historic condition of Nepal.

Madhav started working as a porter in 2001 and then moved on to work as a trekking guide. After working in the trekking and tourism industry for eight years, he co-founded Mosaic Adventure in 2009.

Madhav has trekked to most of the trekking destinations in Nepal, including Everest Base Camp Trek, Annapurna Base Camp, Annapurna Circuit Trek, Poon Hill Trek, Jomsom Muktinath Trek, Indigenous Peoples Trek, Langtang Valley Trek, Mardi Himal Trek, and all of the day hikes around Kathmandu.

He has also extensively traveled to other countries such as Australia, the USA, the UK, France, Hong Kong, Japan, China, the Philippines, the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Thailand, Turkey, and India. Madhav is the one who answers most of your questions about trekking and tours and helps to plan your trip by giving a personal touch.

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• Countries and Their Cultures
• Culture of Nepal

Culture Name

Alternative name, orientation.

Identification. Nepal is named for the Kathmandu Valley, where the nation's founder established a capital in the late eighteenth century. Nepali culture represents a fusion of Indo-Aryan and Tibeto-Mongolian influences, the result of a long history of migration, conquest, and trade.

Location and Geography. Nepal is a roughly rectangular country with an area of 147,181 square miles (381,200 square kilometers). To the south, west, and east it is bordered by Indian states; to the north lies Tibet. Nepal is home to the Himalayan Mountains, including Mount Everest. From the summit of Everest, the topography plunges to just above sea level at the Gangetic Plain on the southern border. This drop divides the country into three horizontal zones: the high mountains, the lush central hills, and the flat, arid Terai region in the south. Fast-moving, snow-fed rivers cut through the hills and mountains from north to south, carving deep valleys and steep ridges. The rugged topography has created numerous ecological niches to which different ethnic groups have adapted. Although trade has brought distinct ethnic groups into contact, the geography has created diversity in language and subsistence practices. The result is a country with over thirty-six ethnic groups and over fifty languages.

Demography. The population in 1997 was just over 22.6 million. Although infant mortality rates are extremely high, fertility rates are higher. High birth rates in rural areas have led to land shortages, forcing immigration to the Terai, where farmland is more plentiful, and to urban areas, where jobs are available. Migration into cities has led to over-crowding and pollution. The Kathmandu Valley has a population of approximately 700,000.

Linguistic Affiliation. After conquering much of the territory that constitutes modern Nepal, King Prithvi Narayan Shah (1743–1775) established Gorkhali (Nepali) as the national language. Nepali is an Indo-European language derived from Sanskrit with which it shares and most residents speak at least some Nepali, which is the medium of government, education, and most radio and television broadcasts. For many people Nepali is secondary to the language of their ethnic group or region. This situation puts certain groups at a disadvantage in terms of education and civil service positions. Since the institution of a multiparty democracy in 1990, linguistic issues have emerged as hotly debated topics.

Symbolism. The culture has many symbols from Hindu and Buddhist sources. Auspicious signs, including the ancient Hindu swastika and Shiva's trident, decorate buses, trucks, and walls. Other significant symbols are the emblems (tree, plow, sun) used to designate political parties.

Prominent among symbols for the nation as a whole are the national flower and bird, the rhododendron and danfe; the flag; the plumed crown worn by the kings; and the crossed kukhris (curved knives) of the Gurkhas, mercenary regiments that have fought for the British Army in a number of wars. Images of the current monarch and the royal family are displayed in many homes and places of business. In nationalistic rhetoric the metaphor of a garden with many different kinds of flowers is used to symbolize national unity amid cultural diversity.

History and Ethnic Relations

The birth of the nation is dated to Prithvi Narayan Shah's conquest of the Kathmandu Valley kingdoms in 1768. The expansionist reigns of Shah and his successors carved out a territory twice the size of modern Nepal. However, territorial clashes with the Chinese in the late eighteenth century and the British in the early nineteenth century pushed the borders back to their current configuration.

National Identity. To unify a geographically and culturally divided land, Shah perpetuated the culture and language of high-caste Hindus and instituted a social hierarchy in which non-Hindus as well as Hindus were ranked according to caste-based principles. Caste laws were further articulated in the National Code of 1854.

By privileging the language and culture of high-caste Hindus, the state has marginalized non-Hindu and low-caste groups. Resentment in recent years has led to the organization of ethnopolitical parties, agitation for minority rights, and talk about the formation of a separate state for Mongolian ethnic groups.

Despite ethnic unrest, Nepalis have a strong sense of national identity and pride. Sacred Hindu and Buddhist sites and the spectacular mountains draw tourists and pilgrims and give citizens a sense of importance in the world. Other natural resources, such as rivers and flora and fauna are a source of national pride.

Hindu castes and Buddhist and animist ethnic groups were historically collapsed into a single caste hierarchy. At the top are high-caste Hindus. Below them are alcohol-drinking ( matwali ) castes, which include Mongolian ethnic groups. At the bottom are untouchable Hindu castes that have traditionally performed occupations considered defiling by higher castes. The Newars of the Kathmandu Valley have a caste system that has been absorbed into the national caste hierarchy.

Historically, members of the highest castes have owned the majority of land and enjoyed the greatest political and economic privileges. Members of lower castes have been excluded from political representation and economic opportunities. The untouchable castes were not permitted to own land, and their civil liberties were circumscribed by law. Caste discrimination is officially illegal but has not disappeared. In 1991, 80 percent of positions in the civil service, army, and police were occupied by members of the two highest castes.

Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space

Nepal historically was one of the least urbanized countries in the world, but urbanization is accelerating, especially in the capital, and urban sprawl and pollution have become serious problems. Kathmandu and the neighboring cities of Patan and Bhaktapur are known for pagoda-style and shikhara temples, Buddhist stupas, palaces, and multistory brick houses with elaborately carved wooden door frames and screened windows. Although the largest and most famous buildings are well maintained, many smaller temples and older residential buildings are falling into disrepair.

At the height of British rule in India, the Rana rulers incorporated Western architectural styles into palaces and public buildings. Rana palaces convey a sense of grandeur and clear separation from the peasantry. The current king's palace's scale and fortress-like quality illustrate the distance between king and commoner.

Rural architecture is generally very simple, reflecting the building styles of different caste and ethnic groups, the materials available, and the climate. Rural houses generally have one or two stories and are made of mud brick with a thatched roof. Village houses tend to be clustered in river valleys or along ridge tops.

Food and Economy

Food in Daily Life. Many Nepalis do not feel that they have eaten a real meal unless it has included a sizable helping of rice. Most residents eat a large rice meal twice a day, usually at midmorning and in the early evening. Rice generally is served with dal, a lentil dish, and tarkari, a cooked vegetable. Often, the meal includes a pickle achar, made of a fruit or vegetable. In poorer and higher-altitude areas, where rice is scarce, the staple is dhiro, a thick mush made of corn or millet. In areas where wheat is plentiful, rice may be supplemented by flat bread, roti. Most families eat from individual plates while seated on the floor. Though some urbanites use Western utensils, it is more common to eat with the hands.

Conventions regarding eating and drinking are tied to caste. Orthodox high-caste Hindus are strictly vegetarian and do not drink alcohol. Other castes may drink alcohol and eat pork and even beef. Traditionally, caste rules also dictate who may eat with or accept food from whom. Members of the higher castes were particularly reluctant to eat food prepared by strangers. Consequently, eating out has not been a major part of the culture. However, caste rules are relaxing to suit the modern world, and the tourist economy is making restaurants a common feature of urban life.

Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. At weddings and other important life-cycle events, feasts are generally hosted by the families directly involved, and numerous guests are invited. At such occasions, it is customary to seat guests on woven grass mats on the ground outside one's home, often in lines separating castes and honoring people of high status. Food is served on leaf plates, which can be easily disposed of. These customs, however, like most others, vary by caste-ethnic groups, and are changing rapidly to suit modern tastes.

Basic Economy. The large majority of the people are subsistence farmers who grow rice, maize, millet, barley, wheat, and vegetables. At low altitudes, agriculture is the principal means of subsistence, while at higher altitudes agropastoralism prevails. Many households maintain chickens and goats. However, few families own more than a small number of cows, water buffalo, or yaks because the mountainous topography does not provide grazing land for large animals.

Nepal is one of the poorest countries in the world. This poverty can be attributed to scarce natural resources, a difficult terrain, landlocked geography, and a weak infrastructure but also to feudal land tenure systems, government corruption, and the ineffectiveness of development efforts. Foreign aid rarely goes to the neediest sectors of the population but is concentrate in urban areas, providing jobs for the urban middle class. The name of the national currency is rupee.

Land Tenure and Property. Historically, a handful of landlords held most agricultural land. Civil servants often were paid in land grants, governing their land on an absentee basis and collecting taxes from tenant-farming peasants. Since the 1950s, efforts have been made to protect the rights of tenants, but without the redistribution of land.

Overpopulation has exacerbated land shortages. Nearly every acre of arable land has been farmed intensively. Deforestation for wood and animal fodder has created serious erosion.

Commercial Activities. The majority of commercial activity takes place at small, family-owned shops or in the stalls of sidewalk vendors. With the exception of locally grown fruits and vegetables, many products are imported from India and, to a lesser extent, China and the West. Jute, sugar, cigarettes, beer, matches, shoes, chemicals, cement, and bricks are produced locally. Carpet and garment manufacturing has increased significantly, providing foreign exchange. Since the late 1950s, tourism has increased rapidly; trekking, mountaineering, white-water rafting, and canoeing have drawn tourists from the West and other parts of Asia. The tourism industry has sparked the commercial production of crafts and souvenirs and created a number of service positions, such as trekking guides and porters. Tourism also has fueled the black market, where drugs are sold and foreign currency is exchanged.

Major Industries. There was no industrial development until the middle of the twentieth century. Much of earliest industrial development was accomplished with the help of private entrepreneurs from India and foreign aid from the Soviet Union, China, and the West. Early development focused on the use of jute, sugar, and tea; modern industries include the manufacturing of brick, tile, and construction materials; paper making; grain processing; vegetable oil extraction; sugar refining; and the brewing of beer.

Trade. Nepal is heavily dependent on trade from India and China. The large majority of imported goods pass through India. Transportation of goods is limited by the terrain. Although roads connect many major commercial centers, in much of the country goods are transported by porters and pack animals. The few roads are difficult to maintain and subject to landslides and flooding. Railroads in the southern flatlands connect many Terai cities to commercial centers in India but do not extend into the hills. Nepal's export goods include carpets, clothing, leather goods, jute, and grain. Tourism is another primary export commodity. Imports include gold, machinery and equipment, petroleum products, and fertilizers.

Division of Labor. Historically, caste was loosely correlated with occupational specialization. Tailors, smiths, and cobblers were the lowest, untouchable castes, and priests and warriors were the two highest Hindu castes. However, the large majority of people are farmers, an occupation that is not caste-specific.

Social Stratification

Classes and Castes. Historically, caste and class status paralleled each other, with the highest castes having the most land, capital, and political influence. The lowest castes could not own property or receive an education. Although caste distinctions are no longer supported by law, caste relations have shaped present-day social stratification: Untouchables continue to be the poorest sector of society, while the upper castes tend to be wealthy and politically dominant. While land is still the principal measure of wealth, some castes that specialize in trade and commerce have fared better under modern capitalism than have landowning castes. Changes in the economic and political system have opened some opportunities for members of historically disadvantaged castes.

Political Life

Government. The Shah dynasty has ruled the country since its unification, except during the Rana period from the mid-nineteenth to the mid-twentieth century. During the Rana administration, the Shah monarchs were stripped of power and the country was ruled by a series of prime ministers from the Rana noble family. In 1950, the Shah kings were restored to the throne and a constitutional monarchy was established that eventually took the form of the panchayat system. Under this system, political parties were illegal and the country was governed by local and national assemblies controlled by the palace. In 1990, the Movement for the Restoration of Democracy (People's Movement) initiated a series of popular demonstrations for democratic reforms, eventually forcing the king to abolish the panchayat system and institute a multiparty democracy.

The country is divided administratively into fourteen zones and seventy-five districts. Local and district-level administers answer to national ministries that are guided by policies set by a bicameral legislature made up of a House of Representatives and a National Council. The majority party in the House of Representatives appoints the prime minister. The executive branch consists of the king and the Council of Ministers.

Leadership and Political Officials. The government is plagued by corruption, and officials often rely on bribes to supplement their income. It is widely believed that influence and employment in government are achieved through personal and family connections. The king is viewed with ambivalence. He and his family have been criticized for corruption and political repression, but photos of the royal family are a popular symbol of national identity and many people think of the king as the living embodiment of the nation and an avatar of the god Vishnu.

Social Problems and Control. International attention has focused on the plight of girls who have been lured or abducted from villages to work as prostitutes in Indian cities and child laborers in carpet factories. Prostitution has increased the spread of AIDS. Foreign boycotts of Nepali carpets have helped curb the use of child labor but have not addressed the larger social problems that force children to become family wage earners.

Military Activity. The military is small and poorly equipped. Its primary purpose is to reinforce the police in maintaining domestic stability. Some Royal Nepal Army personnel have served in United Nations peacekeeping forces. A number of Nepalis, particularly of the hill ethnic groups, have served in Gurkha regiments. To many villagers, service in the British Army represents a significant economic opportunity, and in some areas soldiers' remittances support the local economy.

Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations

Aid organizations are involved in health care, family planning, community development, literacy, women's rights, and economic development for low castes and tribal groups. However, many projects are initiated without an understanding of the physical and cultural environment and serve the interests of foreign companies and local elites.

Gender Roles and Statuses

Division of Labor by Gender. Only men plow, while fetching water is generally considered women's work. Women cook, care for children, wash clothes, and collect firewood and fodder. Men perform the heavier agricultural tasks and often engage in trade, portering, and other work outside the village. Both men and women perform physically demanding labor, but women tend to work longer hours, have less free time, and die younger. In urban areas, men are far more likely to work outside the home. Increasingly, educational opportunities are available to both men and women, and there are women in professional positions. Women also frequently work in family businesses as shopkeepers and seamstresses.

Children and older people are a valuable source of household labor. In rural families, young children collect firewood, mind animals, and watch younger children. Older people may serve on village councils. In urban areas and larger towns, children attend school; rural children may or may not, depending on the proximity of schools, the availability of teachers, and the work required of them at home.

The Relative Status of Women and Men. Women often describe themselves as "the lower caste" in relation to men and generally occupy a subordinate social position. However, the freedoms and opportunities available to women vary widely by ethnic group and caste. Women of the highest castes have their public mobility constrained, for their reputation is critical to family and caste honor. Women of lower castes and classes often play a larger wage-earning role, have greater mobility, and are more outspoken around men. Gender roles are slowly shifting in urban areas, where greater numbers of women are receiving an education and joining the work force.

Marriage, Family, and Kinship

Hindu castes do not generally approve of cross-cousin marriage, which is preferred among some Mongolian ethnic groups. Among some groups, a brideprice substitutes for a dowry. In others, clan exogamy is an important feature of marriages. Until recently, polygyny was legal and relatively common. Now it is illegal and found only in the older generation and in remote areas. Child marriages were considered especially auspicious, and while they continue to be practiced in rural areas, they are now prohibited by law. Love marriage is gaining in popularity in the cities, where romantic films and music inform popular sentiment and the economy offers younger people economic independence from the extended family.

Domestic Unit. Among landholding Hindu castes, a high value is placed on joint family arrangements in which the sons of a household, along with their parents, wives, and children, live together, sharing resources and expenses. Within the household, the old have authority over the young, and men over women. Typically, new daughters-in-law occupy the lowest position. Until a new bride has produced children, she is subject to the hardest work and often the harshest criticism in her husband's household. Older women, often wield a great deal of influence within the household.

The emphasis in joint families is on filial loyalty and agnatic solidarity over individualism. In urban areas, an increasing number of couples are opting for nuclear family arrangements.

Inheritance. Fathers are legally obligated to leave equal portions of land to each son. Daughters do not inherit paternal property unless they remain unmarried past age thirty-five. Although ideally sons manage their father's land together as part of a joint family, familial land tends to be divided, with holdings diminishing in every generation.

Kin Groups. Patrilineal kin groups form the nucleus of households, function as corporate units, and determine inheritance patterns. A man belongs permanently to the kinship group of his father, while a woman changes membership from her natal kin group to the kin group of her husband at the time of marriage. Because family connections are critical in providing access to political influence and economic opportunities, marriage alliances are planned carefully to expand kinship networks and strengthen social ties. Although women join the husband's household, they maintain emotional ties and contact with their families. If a woman is mistreated in her husband's household, she may escape to her father's house or receive support from her male kin. Consequently, women often prefer to marry men from the same villages.

Socialization

Infant Care. Infants are carried on the mothers' back, held by a shawl tied tightly across her chest. Babies are breast-fed on demand, and sleep with their mothers until they are displaced by a new baby or are old enough to share a bed with siblings. Infants and small children often wear amulets and bracelets to protect them from supernatural forces. Parents sometimes line a baby's eyes with kohl to prevent eye infections.

Child Rearing and Education. Mothers are the primary providers of child care, but children also are cared for and socialized by older siblings, cousins, and grandparents. Often children as young as five or six mind younger children. Neighbors are entitled to cuddle, instruct, and discipline children, who are in turn expected to obey and defer to senior members of the family and community. Children address their elders by using the honorific form of Nepali, while adults speak to children using more familiar language. Because authority in households depends on seniority, the relative ages of siblings is important and children are often addressed by birth order.

Certain household rituals mark key stages in child's development, including the first taste of rice and the first haircut. When a girl reaches puberty, she goes through a period of seclusion in which she is prohibited from seeing male family members. Although she may receive special foods and is not expected to work, the experience is an acknowledgment of the pollution associated with female sexuality and reproductivity.

From an early age, children are expected to contribute labor to the household. The law entitles both girls and boys to schooling; however, if a family needs help at home or cannot spare the money for uniforms, books, and school fees, only the sons are sent to school. It is believed that education is wasted on girls, who will marry and take their wage-earning abilities to another household. Boys marry and stay at home, and their education is considered a wise investment.

The customary greeting is to press one's palms together in front of the chest and say namaste ("I greet the god within you"). Men in urban areas have adopted the custom of shaking hands. In the mainstream culture, physical contact between the sexes is not appropriate in public. Although men may be openly affectionate with men and women with women, even married couples do not demonstrate physical affection in public. Some ethnic groups permit more open contact between the sexes.

Hospitality is essential. Guests are always offered food and are not permitted to help with food preparation or cleaning after a meal. It is polite to eat with only the right hand; the hand used to eat food must not touch anything else until it has been thoroughly washed, for saliva is considered defiling. When drinking from a common water vessel, people do not touch the rim to their lips. It is insulting to hit someone with a shoe or sandal, point the soles of one's feet at someone, and step over a person.

Religious Beliefs. Eighty-six percent of Nepalis are Hindus, 8 percent are Buddhists, 4 percent are Muslims, and just over 1 percent are Christians. On a day-to-day level, Hindus practice their religion by "doing puja, " making offerings and prayers to particular deities. While certain days and occasions are designated as auspicious, this form of worship can be performed at any time.

Buddhism is practiced in the Theravadan form. There are two primary Buddhist traditions: the Buddhism of Tibetan refugees and high-altitude ethnic groups with cultural roots in Tibet and the Tantric form practiced by Newars.

There is a strong animistic and shamanic tradition. Belief in ghosts, spirits, and witchcraft is widespread, especially in rural areas. Spiteful witches, hungry ghosts, and angry spirits are thought to inflict illness and misfortune. Shamans mediate between the human and supernatural realms to discover the cause of illness and recommend treatment.

Religious Practitioners. Many forms of Hindu worship do not require the mediation of a priest. At key rites of passage such as weddings and funerals, Brahmin priests read Vedic scriptures and ensure the correct performance of rituals. At temples, priests care for religious icons, which are believed to contain the essence of the deities they represent. They are responsible for ensuring the purity of the temple and overseeing elaborate pujas.

Buddhist monasteries train young initiates in philosophy and meditation. Lay followers gain religious merit by making financial contributions to monasteries, where religious rites are performed on behalf of the general population. Within Buddhism there is a clerical hierarchy, with highly esteemed lamas occupying the positions of greatest influence. Monks and nuns of all ranks shave their heads, wear maroon robes, and embrace a life of celibacy and religious observance.

Rituals and Holy Places. Nepal occupies a special place in both Hindu and Buddhist traditions. According to Hindu mythology, the Himalayas are the abode of the gods, and are specifically associated with Shiva, one of the three principal Hindu deities. Pashupatinath, a large Shiva temple in Kathmandu, is among the holiest sites in Nepal and attracts Hindu pilgrims from all over South Asia. Pashupatinath is only one of thousands of temples and shrines scattered throughout Nepal, however. In the Kathmandu Valley alone, there are hundreds of such shrines, large and small, in which the major gods and goddesses of the Hindu pantheon, as well as local and minor divinities, are worshiped. Many of these shrines are constructed near rivers or at the base of pipal trees, which are themselves considered sacred. For Buddhists, Nepal is significant as the birthplace of Lord Buddha. It is also home to a number of important Buddhist monasteries and supas, including Boudha and Swayambhu, whose domeshaped architecture and painted all-seeing eyes have become symbols of the Kathamandu Valley.

Death and the Afterlife. Hindus and Buddhists believe in reincarnation. An individual's meritorious actions in life will grant him or her a higher rebirth. In both religions the immediate goal is to live virtuously in order to move progressively through higher births and higher states of consciousness. Ultimately, the goal is to attain enlightenment, stopping the cycle of rebirth.

In the Hindu tradition, the dead are cremated, preferably on the banks of a river. It is customary for a son to perform the funeral rites. Some Buddhists also cremate bodies. Others perform what are called "sky burials," in which corpses are cut up and left at sacred sites for vultures to carry away.

Medicine and Health Care

Infant mortality is high, respiratory and intestinal diseases are endemic, and malnutrition is widespread in a country where life expectancy is fifty-seven years. Contributing to this situation are poverty, poor hygiene, and lack of health care. There are hospitals only in urban areas, and they are poorly equipped and unhygienic. Rural health clinics often lack personnel, equipment, and medicines. Western biomedical practices have social prestige, but many poor people cannot afford this type of health care. Many people consult shamans and other religious practitioners. Others look to Ayurvedic medicine, in which illness is thought to be caused by imbalances in the bodily humors. Treatment involves correcting these imbalances, principally through diet. Nepalis combine Ayurvedic, shamanic, biomedical, and other systems.

Although health conditions are poor, malaria has been eradicated. Development efforts have focused on immunization, birth control, and basic medical care. However, the success of all such projects seems to correlate with the education levels of women, which are extremely low.

The Arts and Humanities

Graphic Arts. Much of Nepali art is religious. Newari artisans create cast-bronze statuary of Buddhist and Hindu deities as well as intricately painted tangkas that describe Buddhist cosmology. The creation and contemplation of such art constitutes a religious act.

Performance Arts. Dramatic productions often focus on religious themes drawn from Hindu epics, although political satire and other comedic forms are also popular. There is a rich musical heritage, with a number of distinctive instruments and vocal styles, and music has become an marker of identity for the younger generation. Older people prefer folk and religious music; younger people, especially in urban areas, are attracted to romantic and experimental film music as well as fusions of Western and Asian genres.

The State of the Physical and Social Sciences

Universities are underfunded, faculties are poorly paid, and library resources are meager. Nepalis accord less respect to degrees from universities than to degrees obtained abroad and many scholars seek opportunities to study overseas or in India. Despite these limitations, some fine scholarship has emerged, particularly in the social sciences. In the post-1990 period, political reforms have permitted a more open and critical intellectual environment.

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—M ARIE K AMALA N ORMAN

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• The Culture Of Nepal

• Nepal is situated in the Himalayas and is a country that houses multiple cultures and ethnicities.
• 123 languages are spoken in Nepal.
• Though volleyball is the national sport, football (soccer) is the most popular.
• The population of Nepal is mostly Hindu, with the next most-practiced religion being Buddhism
• A lot of performance and art in Nepal is inspired from Hindu religious mythology.

Nepal is a sovereign state in South Asia , situated in the Himalayas. This landlocked country has a population of approximately 29 million people in 2020 and borders China and India. The country’s capital and largest city is Kathmandu. The country has a rich, multi-ethnic and multi-dimensional culture based on ancient traditions and social customs. The Nepalese culture is closely related to the culture of the more massive Indian Sub-continent and is influenced by the cultures of India and Tibet.

Ethnicity, Language, And Religion

Nepal is a multiethnic and multicultural country that came into existence through the progressive, political merging of smaller kingdoms and principalities such as Videha, Mustang, Limbuwan, and Madhesh. The northern part of the country is inhabited by Limbu, Rai, and Mongolian people while the Sherpa, Magar, Gurung and Lama people inhabit the western and central regions. 

There are approximately 123 languages spoken in Nepal. The major language is Nepali, spoken by 44.6% of the population as mother tongue. Other main languages include Maithili, Tamang, Tharu, and Bhojpuri. There are two main religions in Nepal; Buddhism and Hinduism. However, some Nepalese practice a unique combination of the two religions. The majority of the population, 80%, are Hindu while 11% practice Buddhism. Islam is practiced by about 3.2% of the population. Christians are \bout 1% of the population.

Nepalese cuisine is comprised of a variety of cuisines from the different ethnicities of the country and has been influenced by Asian culture. In most instances, a meal is never complete without a sizeable amount of rice. Rice is mainly served with daal, a spiced lentil soup, and vegetable curry called tarkari. 

Meals are eaten twice a day; late morning and early evening. Mostly, the meals also include “achar” which pickled vegetables or fruit. Rice may also be supplemented with flatbread known as “roti.” Traditionally, people eat from their individual plates using their hands and while seated on the floor.

Nepalese Traditional Clothing

Each of the ethnic groups in Nepal has its own traditional clothing. However, most of these follow the same pattern. Men’s traditional clothes are referred to as “Daura Suruwal.” Daura is a double-breasted shirt while Suruwal are simple baggy trousers that fit tightly at the ankle. Other items of clothing include jackets and a vest. The combination of a jacket and Daura Suruwal is considered informal traditional wear. A Daura does not have buttons or clasps and is often held in its place by four ties, two close to the waist and two near the shoulders. The national hat is called “Dhaka topi” and is often worn by the men.

The traditional outfit for the women is called “Kurta Suruwal.” It consists of a long blouse, sleeveless or short-sleeved and usually extending below the hips, light baggy pants, and a large scarf. The clothing is loose and usually brightly coloured and with patterns. The scarf is also long and matches with the rest of the outfit. It is draped over the body.

Literature, Art, And Craft

Nepalese literature dates back to the 19th century with the adaptation of the Hindu “Ramayan” by the Bhanubhakta Acharya for the Nepali readership. The development of literature in the country has been hampered by the heavy government censorship and control, forcing most authors and poets to seek publication outside the country. Several Nepali authors have been actively writing innovative Nepali literature since the Democratic revolution of 1991. Some of these authors include Khagendra Sangraula, Yuyutsu Sharma, Narayan Wagle, and Toya Gurung.

Much of Nepalese art is considered religious. The Newar people are responsible for most of the examples of the traditional art and architecture of Nepal. They are known for craftsmanship, Paubha painting, and sculpture. The Newari create a caste-bronze statue of Hindu and Buddhist deities.

Performance Arts

Performance art also focuses on religious themes drawn from Hindu epics. Political satire is also very common as well as comedic forms. Nepal has a rich musical heritage with several distinctive vocal styles and instruments. Music is popular across all age groups and has become a marker of identity, especially among the younger generation. The older generation prefers folk songs and religious music while the younger generation is attracted to western and experimental film music. Performance art such as music and dancing is a very important part of festivals and celebrations. The end of the plowing season is often marked by songs, shouts, and dances.

Several sports are played in Nepal, both at the national and international levels. The most popular sport in the country is football (known in the US and Canada as soccer), followed by cricket. The Nepalese national cricket team has even participated in the World Cup and other international competitions. However, the national sport of Nepal is volleyball. 

The sport with the most tournaments in Nepal is football, and they are held across the country. The Nepal football national team won gold in the 2016 South Asia Games. According to the 2018 FIFA ranking, Nepal holds position 165.

Life In Society

Nepal is a multi-ethnic society with a rich culture and religious practices. Visitors are required to embrace native customs while visiting certain places such as temples. Like the locals, they must put on a respectable dress with no leather, remove their shoes, and ask for permission before entering the Hindu temple. Nepalis are generally friendly. However, public display of affection is not appreciated. 

Superstition still rules the country. Interestingly, praising a baby’s appearance or walking on spilled rice brings bad luck. Red chillies are almost everywhere and are believed to drive away the evil spirit. The family is very important in Nepalese culture. Like much of the world, for a very long time, women were honored as mothers and had little access to education and political power. Men were the heads of their respective families and were required to provide for them. While there has been progress for the rights of women in recent decades, this progress has been slow to reach the regions outside of the urban centres.

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Nepal's Vibrant Culture: An In-Depth Exploration

Article 30 Oct 2023 2387 0

Nestled amidst the majestic Himalayas, Nepal stands as a beacon of diverse cultural heritage, representing a tapestry of traditions, rituals, and festivals. This article delves into the culturally rich landscape of Nepal, illuminating its significance in the global context.

1. Overview of Nepal's Cultural Diversity

Nepal, a tiny Himalayan nation, stands tall when it comes to cultural richness. With its mosaic of ethnicities and languages, it offers a unique blend of traditions stemming from both Indo-Aryan and Tibetan ethnic groups.

Ethnicities and Languages : With over 120 ethnic groups, Nepal is a cauldron of diversity. While Nepali remains the official language, the country is home to more than 123 languages, each echoing tales of Nepal's diversified past.

Himalayan Culture and Kathmandu Heritage : The capital city, Kathmandu, is a reflection of Nepal’s history, housing numerous temples, palaces, and courtyards. The city's heritage echoes the larger Himalayan culture, making it a must-visit for cultural enthusiasts.

2. Nepal's Festive Prowess: Dashain, Tihar, and More

Nepal's festivals offer a vibrant insight into its profound cultural heritage. With festivities spreading across the calendar, Nepal presents a unique celebration every month, each echoing the nation's deep-rooted beliefs, folklore, and social fabric. Here's a closer look at some of the major festivals:

Dashain: Triumph of Good over Evil

Arguably the most significant and celebrated festival in Nepal, Dashain stands as a testament to the country's rich Hindu heritage.

• Significance : It commemorates the victory of the goddess Durga over the demon Mahishasura, symbolizing the triumph of good over evil.
• Observance : Dashain lasts for about 15 days, culminating in Tika, where elders bless the younger generation with vermilion, yogurt, and rice. Alongside, they gift money, emphasizing the importance of family reunions and intergenerational bonds.

Tihar: A Five-Day Homage to Nature and Animals

Often likened to the festival of Diwali in India, Tihar is celebrated with equal enthusiasm and reverence in Nepal.

• Significance : While it venerates the bond between Lord Krishna and the cow, the festival extends its homage to various animals, acknowledging their importance in human lives.
• Observance : Over five days, crows, dogs, cows, oxen, and horses are honored and garlanded. Homes are illuminated with oil lamps and decorated with colorful rangoli artworks.

Teej: A Day of Fasting and Felicity

Teej is an exclusive women's festival, marked by vibrant processions, songs, dances, and an air of fervor.

• Significance : It celebrates the reunion of Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati, symbolizing marital bliss and fidelity.
• Observance : Women, clad in red saris (indicative of marriage), fast for their husbands' longevity. Even unmarried girls partake, praying for ideal life partners. Amidst fasting, women sing, dance, and immerse themselves in Teej tales.

Holi: The Festival of Colors

An emblem of unity, joy, and the victory of good over evil, Holi is celebrated with unmatched zest in Nepal.

• Significance : It marks the demise of Holika, signifying the triumph of good over malevolent forces.
• Observance : People drench each other in colored waters, throw vibrant powders, and relish special dishes. Folk songs, dances, and community gatherings are essential features.

Indra Jatra: Honoring the Rain God

Kathmandu's historic Durbar Square comes alive during Indra Jatra , an eight-day festival honoring Indra, the god of rain.

• Significance : It's a gratitude gesture towards Indra for the rains and the subsequent harvest.
• Observance : The festival witnesses various classical dances, including the famous "Kumari Jatra," where a chariot carrying the living goddess Kumari is paraded through the city.

"Festivals in Nepal are as number as there are days in a year." - Sudha Shrestha, a cultural researcher from Kathmandu.

Example : A notable feature during Tihar is the 'Bhailo' and 'Deusi' performances, where groups go house-to-house singing and dancing, reminiscent of carol singing during Christmas.

Case Study : In 2019, the Nepal Tourism Board initiated the "Experience Local Festivals" campaign. Tourists were paired with local families to celebrate Dashain and Tihar, fostering cultural exchanges. The overwhelming positive feedback emphasized the allure of Nepal's festive traditions for global travelers.

To truly appreciate the cultural heritage of Nepal, immersing oneself in its festivals is crucial. Each festivity offers a blend of spirituality, history, and social customs, making Nepal's festive prowess unmatched in the global panorama.

3. Rhythms of Nepal: Traditional Dances, Music, and Arts

The cultural essence of Nepal is deeply reflected in its music, dances, and traditional art forms. From the reverberating beats of the madal (a traditional drum) to the intricate strokes of Thangka paintings, the artistic expressions of Nepal resonate with tales of its rich history, folklore, and societal evolution.

Traditional Music: Echoes of the Himalayas

Nepal's musical landscape is as diverse as its topography. Each region, each community, boasts its unique style, rendering a kaleidoscope of sounds.

Classical Music : Rooted in age-old traditions, Nepali classical music often intertwines with rituals, making it an integral part of ceremonies and religious practices.

Folk Music : This genre truly captures the essence of Nepal's diversity. With songs narrating tales of love, bravery, and everyday life, folk music varies from the pastoral tunes of the Terai plains to the haunting melodies of the high Himalayas.

Dances: Narratives in Motion

Beyond mere performances, dances in Nepal serve as a reflection of its societal fabric, religious beliefs, and historical tales.

Lakhe Dance : Often observed during the Indra Jatra festival, this dance features a demonic character, Lakhe, representing a carnivorous demon from Nepali folklore.

Tamang Selo : A vibrant dance reflecting the life and culture of the Tamang community. The rhythmic beats of the damphu (a hand drum) guide the dancers' swift movements.

Tharu Stick Dance : Originating from the Tharu community of the Terai region, this dance is characterized by dancers wielding sticks, enacting agricultural activities to rhythmic beats.

Arts: Canvas of Spiritual & Historical Narratives

The artistry of Nepal is vast, encompassing various mediums, each echoing Nepal's spiritual inclinations and historical richness.

Thangka Paintings : These intricate scroll paintings, often on cotton or silk, depict Buddhist deities and are used as meditation tools. Their vibrant colors and meticulous details make them sought-after pieces worldwide.

Wooden Crafts : Woodwork, especially seen in the ornate windows and doors of temples and palaces, reflects the expertise of Nepali artisans. Kathmandu Valley, in particular, is renowned for its exquisite wood carvings.

Terracotta Artifacts : Often seen in temples and local homes, these clay works, whether in the form of deities or decorative pieces, have a rustic charm, showcasing the age-old pottery skills of Nepal.

"Art and culture in Nepal are not mere expressions; they are lifelines connecting past, present, and future." - Dr. Laxman Shrestha, a renowned Nepali artist.

Example : In Bhaktapur, during the Bisket Jatra festival, traditional Newari music forms the backdrop for chariot races, illustrating how deeply music is embedded in local festivals.

4. Historical Landmarks and UNESCO Sites: A Testament to Nepal’s Legacy

Nestled amidst the towering peaks of the Himalayas, Nepal isn't just a geographical wonder but also a repository of ancient history. Peppered across its landscape are historical landmarks and UNESCO World Heritage Sites that echo tales of dynasties, spiritual journeys, and architectural brilliance.

Kathmandu Valley: The Cultural Epicenter

The Kathmandu Valley, enveloping the capital city and its peripheries, is home to seven UNESCO World Heritage Sites, each a testament to Nepal's architectural and cultural grandeur.

Swayambhunath (Monkey Temple) : Perched atop a hill, this stupa is one of the oldest religious sites in Nepal. The omnipresent eyes of Buddha, painted on the stupa, watch over the valley, symbolizing his all-seeing nature.

Pashupatinath Temple : Dedicated to Lord Shiva, it's a significant pilgrimage site for Hindus. Situated on the banks of the Bagmati River, the temple complex witnesses daily rituals, cremation ceremonies, and the annual Shivaratri festival.

Patan Durbar Square : Once the royal palace of the Malla kings, it's now a vibrant nexus of art, with its courtyards, pagoda-style temples, and intricate wood carvings.

Lumbini: The Birthplace of Buddha

An emblem of peace and spirituality, Lumbini stands as a beacon for Buddhists worldwide.

Significance : Recognized as the birthplace of Siddhartha Gautama, who became Buddha, Lumbini is adorned with monasteries, stupas, and the sacred Bodhi tree.

The Ashoka Pillar : Erected by Emperor Ashoka in 249 BC, it verifies Lumbini as the Buddha's birthplace and epitomizes the Mauryan Empire's endorsement of Buddhism.

Sagarmatha National Park: Nature's Heritage

While Nepal's heritage is often equated with its cultural and religious landmarks, Sagarmatha National Park, with Mount Everest at its heart, is a natural UNESCO World Heritage site.

• Flora and Fauna : Home to the snow leopard, red panda, and myriad bird species, the park is a biodiversity hotspot. Its pristine forests of pine and hemlock add to its ecological significance.

Chitwan National Park: A Bio-reserve Marvel

Situated in the Terai plains, Chitwan is a haven for wildlife enthusiasts.

• Wildlife : From the one-horned rhinoceros to the Bengal tiger, Chitwan's rich biodiversity makes it a must-visit for nature lovers.

"Nepal, in its monuments and mountains, embodies a confluence of nature's grandeur and human endeavor." - Prof. Bimala Tumkhewa, Historian.

Example : In Bhaktapur Durbar Square, the 55-Window Palace stands as a testimony to the architectural finesse of the Malla dynasty, with its ornate woodwork and intricate latticework.

5. Religious Practices and Spiritual Beliefs

The essence of Nepal is woven intricately with threads of faith and spirituality. Home to a myriad of religious practices, Nepal stands as a testament to religious tolerance and syncretism. From the melodic chants of Buddhist monks to the ceremonial rituals of Hindus, the spiritual journey of Nepal offers a rich tapestry of traditions and beliefs.

Hinduism: The Dominant Faith

Hinduism, being the predominant religion, profoundly influences the socio-cultural framework of Nepal.

Temples and Shrines : From the revered Pashupatinath Temple to the sacred Muktinath, Nepal's landscape is dotted with temples, each narrating tales of gods, goddesses, and ancient rituals.

Festivals : Celebrations like Dashain, symbolizing the victory of good over evil, and Teej, a women-centric festival, are deeply entrenched in Hindu mythologies and are celebrated with zest across the country.

Buddhism: Legacy of the Enlightened One

Tracing its roots to Lumbini, the birthplace of Buddha, Buddhism in Nepal is characterized by monasteries, stupas, and serene chants.

Stupas and Gompas : Boudhanath and Swayambhunath stupas are emblematic of Nepal's Buddhist heritage. Monasteries or 'Gompas' further resonate with teachings of compassion and non-violence.

Mantras and Prayer Flags : The ubiquitous prayer flags fluttering in the Himalayan breeze carry mantras and prayers, spreading goodwill and positive energy.

Indigenous Beliefs: Echoes of the Ancestors

Beyond the major religions, Nepal is home to indigenous communities with their unique spiritual practices.

Shamanism : Predominantly among the Tamang and Rai communities, shamans or 'Dhamis' play pivotal roles, acting as intermediaries between the physical and spiritual realms.

Nature Worship : Many ethnic groups venerate nature, with rituals dedicated to mountains, rivers, and forests, underscoring the harmonious coexistence of man and nature.

"In Nepal, every stone, every river, and every mountain has a story, a deity, and a ritual associated with it." - Anuradha Koirala, a noted Nepali social activist.

6. Nepal’s Culture in Today's Global Context

In an increasingly globalized world, cultures intermingle, and boundaries blur. Yet, Nepal's rich tapestry of traditions, arts, and spiritual practices continues to shine, finding relevance and resonance in today's cosmopolitan milieu.

Cultural Export: From Himalayas to the World

Nepal, while preserving its ancient traditions, has seamlessly integrated its cultural offerings into the global arena.

Yoga and Meditation : Originally rooted in the spiritual practices of the region, Nepal's yoga and meditation retreats are now sought after by global enthusiasts seeking solace and self-realization.

Handicrafts and Art : Nepalese handicrafts, especially pashmina shawls, thangka paintings, and intricately carved wooden artifacts, have found admirers and markets worldwide.

Cuisine : Nepalese cuisine, with its delectable momos, thukpa, and gundruk, has tantalized global taste buds, with Nepali restaurants proliferating in major cities across the world.

Cultural Diplomacy: Strengthening Bonds

Nepal's cultural heritage has played a pivotal role in its diplomatic endeavors, fostering relationships and mutual respect.

Cultural Festivals Abroad : Events like "Nepal Day" in countries like the USA, UK, and Australia not only promote Nepal's culture but also strengthen ties with the Nepali diaspora.

Educational and Cultural Exchange : Nepal's collaborations with global universities and cultural institutions have paved the way for exchange programs, research, and mutual appreciation.

Preservation in the Age of Modernity

In an era dominated by technology and rapid change, Nepal grapples with preserving its cultural identity while embracing modernity.

Digital Archives : Efforts are being made to document and digitize ancient manuscripts, folk songs, and traditional dances, ensuring they are passed on to future generations.

Sustainable Tourism : Emphasizing eco-friendly and culturally respectful tourism, Nepal ensures that its heritage sites and traditions are not diluted but celebrated responsibly.

"Nepal stands as a beacon, showcasing how ancient traditions can not only coexist but flourish in the contemporary world." - Dr. Ram Baran Yadav, former President of Nepal.

Example : The annual "Himalayan Film Festival" held in San Francisco showcases films from and about the Himalayan regions, celebrating the culture, spirit, and challenges of the people of Nepal and its neighboring regions.

Nepal, though geographically small, is a giant in terms of cultural heritage. From its festivals and rituals to its art and history, it offers a myriad of experiences for travel enthusiasts, cultural researchers, and general readers alike.

"Nepal is a world in itself; a world of diversity, culture, and traditions, waiting to be explored." - Excerpt from "Culture of Nepal" by Madan Puraskar Pustakalaya.

To truly fathom the depth of Nepal's culture, one needs to immerse oneself in its festivals, arts, and traditions. The tales of its grandeur, as preserved in its heritage sites, music, and dance, promise a journey like no other.

For a more exhaustive exploration, readers are encouraged to peruse official publications by the Nepal Tourism Board, delve into UNESCO’s documentation on Nepalese heritage sites, and explore local journals that shed light on this Himalayan gem.

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Nepalese Culture

Core concepts.

• Companionship
• Interdependence
• Dependability

Nepal is a landlocked, mountainous country located between India and Tibet. It is well known for the impressive Himalayan range and deep valleys that shape the landscape. Nepalis have a reputation for being dependable and resilient people who can withstand difficult conditions. This was recently exemplified in the stoic national response following the devastating earthquake of 2015. Nepalis often exhibit patience and calmness, and are generally not overly dramatic people. Their tolerance has enabled many different faiths and ethnicities to coexist quite harmoniously. Much of Nepal’s culture is deeply steeped in tradition and religion. However, new values and ideas are being introduced to the general population in light of a new democratic political order.

Nepalis are generally deeply loyal to their citizenship and culture. They are very proud that their country has never been colonised, seeing this as a key distinguishing fact between them and India. The Gurkhas (Nepali soldiers) continue to be highly admired for their role in this regard1. Nepalis understand the worth and beauty of their land. The culture is enigmatic with many religious customs, rituals, festivals, processions and local secrets. Yet, people also share a sense of sadness regarding the widespread poverty and mismanagement of their country. Indeed, poverty is an undeniable social issue. This, coupled with an unstable political situation, means the primary ambition of most Nepalis is generally to secure a stable future for their family.

Nepal is largely underdeveloped with limited social services and public infrastructure. There are very few urban centres outside of the capital city of Kathmandu. An estimated 83% of the population live in rural areas (2011). The geographical isolation that the mountains create has generally led many villages to be secluded from outside influence, meaning many have retained quite a distinct cultural identity. Tribal and nomadic practices continue in many places. The diversity of customs and values between regions means Nepal cannot be broadly generalised. However, typically it can be observed that the more remotely situated a community is, the more visibly traditional their cultural practices will be. Meanwhile, those regions with access to better education are likely to have diverged from some aspects of traditional social customs. Kathmandu in particular is becoming very outward looking, drawing influence from across the globe. Recent cosmopolitan transformation is visible in fashion as traditional Nepali attire is now usually only worn in rural areas.

Social Hierarchies

Nepali culture is quite hierarchical and there is significant stratification between the poorest and the most powerful of society. People mostly accept these differences in social status as the natural order and defer to those who are older or who they perceive to have a high reputation. However, a person’s status and background is not always immediately evident in Nepal. For example, one may find that a fruit seller has a degree in business. As it can be difficult to assume someone’s status from their appearance, Nepalis commonly ask about one’s age, profession, education and family background to determine the correct level of respect to be shown. Westerners often find that they are deferred to a lot and treated with high regard as (relatively speaking) they are considered to be very wealthy in Nepal. Land ownership is also a common measure of status. However, one’s family reputation and status ( ijat ) is generally thought to be more important than material wealth. People are not expected to be respected because of their money, but rather their virtue. There is also a preference shown towards those who are educated or speak English. This being said, many Nepalis are gradually becoming more materialistic and money focused.

The Nepali awareness of status is also heavily influenced by the Hindu caste system . Although often classified under one term, the ‘caste’ system actually represents multiple overlapping systems of stratification. The ‘ varna ’ system divides society into four broad categories (varna) that are sometimes described as clusters of castes. These are the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras. Each varna is considered to indicate a different level of ‘purity’ – with the Brahmins being the holiest/purest in Hinduism. Within each varna, there are more specific ‘ thar ’ categories that specify the social community one is born into and are often referred to in terms of vocation/employment. They are allocated and stratified into the varna system depending on the person’s social status. For example, occupations considered ‘dirty’ – such as cleaning or handling cow leather – are situated within the lower varna class of Sudra.

One’s caste traditionally determined the person’s line of work, position in the social hierarchy and defined ideas of self-worth. Despite it becoming illegal to discriminate on the basis of caste in 1962, the influence of this social stratification has remained. Some Nepalis may socialise and marry within their caste while others may even ostracise those belonging to subordinate castes. For example, they may not accept offers of food from someone of a low caste, believing it to be ‘impure’. Nevertheless, as Nepal modernises, the social constraints of the caste system are fading. In Kathmandu, for instance, where castes mix on a daily basis, the concern regarding others’ castes is diminishing. The younger generation is also particularly liberal and open towards all castes. One of the main agendas of the incoming government has been to recognise all castes.

Ethnic Demographic

People’s social distinction, be it their caste or ethnicity , plays a big role in informing their personal identity in Nepal. For example, many Nepalis use the name of their ethnic group or caste as their surname. An individual’s ethnicity is different from their caste. While one’s caste is usually indicative of occupation and family status, ethnic groups commonly share a distinctive language, ancestral home, religious tradition or form of social organisation.

The government has identified between 50 and 60 Nepali ethnicities (2011). Many of these are indigenous to Nepal and have origins as the original inhabitants of a certain region (e.g. the Tharu and Tamang people). Other ethnicities in Nepal, while not native, are often historical inhabitants of the areas. Some of the biggest ethnicities are the Brahmin-Chhetri, Magars and Newars.

The ethnic makeup of Nepal reflects the historical migratory patterns into the country from the North and South. Broadly, the castes and ethnicities can be broken down into two main groups: Tibeto-Burmans and Indo-Aryans. This differentiation between the two is not so much socially distinctive, but often visible in hereditary features that suggest distant ancestry. Indo-Aryans typically have similar appearances to their Indian neighbours in the South, whilst Tibeto-Burmans generally resemble Mongol or Tibetan people. Indo-Aryans are more populous and have come to dominate Nepal socially, politically and economically, while Tibeto-Burmans traditionally inhabit the mountains at very high altitudes. However, with increasing urban and overseas migration, the geographic differentiation between ethnicities is reducing.

Nepalis with foreign ancestry may have retained certain cultural influences that relate to their ancestral background. For example, those from India commonly follow Hinduism, whilst Tibeto-Burmans are generally Buddhist. However, these labels purely serve as a helpful way to categorise the origins of Nepal's ethnic diversity and don’t necessarily reflect Nepali people’s personal identity. People are unlikely to describe themselves as ‘Tibeto-Burman’ or ‘Indo-Aryan’. Every individual ethnicity has developed a strong and distinctive cultural identity. They often share a common language, belief or form of social organisation unique to their ethnic group.

Collectivism

Nepali culture is very collectivistic. Families may combine their assets in order for all members to be economically secure, and close friends perform favours for one another on a regular basis. This interdependence has been largely driven by necessity, as the government cannot always be relied upon to provide support. Instead, Nepalis tend to be deeply reliant on and loyal to their family and social group. It’s common for people to forfeit their own aspirations for the betterment of their entire family unit. For example, one person may work in very difficult conditions whilst sending remittances back to others. In rural areas and at high altitudes especially, people depend on their community for survival, and basic assets are shared communally. Village elders are often the authority figures of these communities. Those who are urban, educated and internationally exposed may be more individualistic in their outlook. However, given the underdeveloped status of Nepal, economic independence is still difficult to attain.

Friendship and Company

Most friendships have a strong significance and substance to people in Nepal. They are approached quite earnestly and are not usually shallow relationships that come and go quickly. There is a sense of graciousness that comes with sharing in another’s company; people are constantly “humbled” to meet others, have a guest or gain a new friend. Once the growth of a friendship begins, so too does an expectation of loyalty and reliability. People often reach out to friends for personal favours and support and may expect to be granted certain privileges (such as job opportunities) on the basis of the relationship.

Generally, Nepalis feel most comfortable when they are accompanied in whatever they do. They love companionship and are known to strike up conversation for little reason other than to talk. This aspect of Nepali culture makes it feel very warm and inclusive. People rarely go anywhere alone ( eklai ), particularly women. Those who are travelling alone can expect to be questioned out of curiosity as to why; solo travellers are usually sent off with a blessing and so are accompanied by the wishes and prayers of their family.

Purity and Fatalism

A deep moral and ethical awareness is interlaced into daily life in Nepal. This is influenced by religious values and beliefs, as well as cultural ideas of purity. They are deeply entrenched and ritualised in people’s diet and personal practice. Almost any action, object, job or person can be categorised as particularly ‘pure’ or ‘impure’. Nepalis can be quite reserved in their behaviour, acting modestly in accord with what is considered to be appropriate behaviour within these cultural guidelines.

The fundamental importance religion holds in many Nepalis’ lives also influences their approach to problem solving. It is common for people to take a fatalistic attitude, assuming the cause of problems to be the result of a god or spirit’s work. For example, witches are sometimes thought to be the cause of bad luck. This fatalism does not necessarily mean people are passive, waiting for things to occur at the will of a god. Nepalis generally work very hard until the point that they can do no more – from there, “what will be will be”. However, misfortunes are often attributed to an individual’s behaviour; for instance, bad health is commonly perceived to result from bad karma. Therefore, Nepalis are known to be quite stoic and tolerant in difficult situations as this explanation of problems can make them feel as if they somewhat deserve to suffer.

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1 The Nepali military played a famous role in fighting the British off.2 See the statistics on the side of this page for a list of different ethnic groups in Nepal.

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• Description

The cultural heritage of the Kathmandu Valley is illustrated by seven groups of monuments and buildings which display the full range of historic and artistic achievements for which the Kathmandu Valley is world famous. The seven include the Durbar Squares of Hanuman Dhoka (Kathmandu), Patan and Bhaktapur, the Buddhist stupas of Swayambhu and Bauddhanath and the Hindu temples of Pashupati and Changu Narayan.

Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

Vallée de Kathmandu

Le patrimoine culturel de la Vallée de Kathmandu est illustré par sept ensembles de monuments et constructions, couvrant l’éventail complet des réalisations historiques et artistiques qui ont rendu la Vallée de Kathmandu mondialement célèbre. Ces sept ensembles comprennent les places Durbar de Hanuman Dhoka (Kathmandu), Patan et Bhaktapur, les stupas bouddhistes de Swayambhu et Bauddhanath ainsi que les temples hindous de Pashupati et de Changu Narayan.

وادي كاتماندو

يظهر التراث الثقافي في وادي كاتماندو من خلال مجمّعات الآثار والعمارات السبعة التي تغطي تشكيلة المنشآت التاريخية والفنية الكاملة التي جعلت وادي كاتماندو مشهورًا في أنحاء العالم كلّه. وتتضمَّن هذه المجمّعات السبعة ساحات دوربار في هانومان دوكا (كاتماندو) وباتن وباكتابور والمعابد البوذية في سوايامبو، بالاضافة الى المعابد الهندوسية في باشوباتي وشنغو نارايان.

source: UNESCO/CPE Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

加德满都谷地文化遗产有七组历史遗址和建筑群，全面反映了加德满都谷地闻名于世的历史和艺术成就。七组历史遗址包括加德满都、帕坦和巴德冈王宫广场、斯瓦亚姆布与博德纳特佛教圣庙和伯舒伯蒂与钱古·纳拉扬印度神庙。

Valle de Katmandú

El sitio del valle de Katmandú comprende siete conjuntos de monumentos y edificios representativos de la totalidad de las obras históricas y artísticas que han hecho mundialmente célebre al valle de Katmandú. En esos siete conjuntos están comprendidas: las tres plazas Durbar situadas frente a los palacios reales de Hanuman Dhoka (Katmandú), Patán y Bhaktapur; las estupas budistas de Swayambhu y Bauddhabath; y los templos hinduistas de Pashupati y Changu Narayan.

source: NFUAJ

Kathmandu vallei

Zeven groepen monumenten en gebouwen illustreren het cultureel erfgoed van de Kathmandu vallei. Deze omvatten het volledige scala van historische en artistieke prestaties die de Kathmandu vallei wereldberoemd maken. De groepen omvatten de Durbar Squares (stadscentra met paleizen en tempels) van Hanuman Dhoka (Kathmandu), Patan en Bhaktapur, de boeddhistische stoepa’s van Swayambhu en Bauddhanath en de hindoetempels van Pashupati en Changu Narayan. In Swayambhu staat de oudste stoepa (rond gebouw met relieken van heiligen) van de vallei, in Bauddhanath de grootste stoepa van Nepal. Pashupati heeft een uitgestrekt hindoetempelterrein en Changu Narayan bestaat uit een traditionele Newari nederzetting en een hindoeïstisch tempelcomplex.

Source: unesco.nl

Outstanding Universal Value

Located in the foothills of the Himalayas, the Kathmandu Valley World Heritage property is inscribed as seven Monument Zones. These monument zones are the Durbar squares or urban centres with their palaces, temples and public spaces of the three cities of Kathmandu (Hanuman Dhoka), Patan and Bhaktapur, and the religious ensembles of Swayambhu, Bauddhanath, Pashupati and Changu Narayan. The religious ensemble of Swayambhu includes the oldest Buddhist monument (a stupa) in the Valley; that of Bauddhanath includes the largest stupa in Nepal; Pashupati has an extensive Hindu temple precinct, and Changu Narayan comprises traditional Newari settlement, and a Hindu temple complex with one of the earliest inscriptions in the Valley from the fifth century AD. The unique tiered temples are mostly made of fired brick with mud mortar and timber structures. The roofs are covered with small overlapping terracotta tiles, with gilded brass ornamentation. The windows, doorways and roof struts have rich decorative carvings. The stupas have simple but powerful forms with massive, whitewashed hemispheres supporting gilded cubes with the all-seeing eternal Buddha eyes.

As Buddhism and Hinduism developed and changed over the centuries throughout Asia, both religions prospered in Nepal and produced a powerful artistic and architectural fusion beginning at least from the 5th century AD, but truly coming into its own in the three hundred year period between 1500 and 1800 AD. These monuments were defined by the outstanding cultural traditions of the Newars, manifested in their unique urban settlements, buildings and structures with intricate ornamentation displaying outstanding craftsmanship in brick, stone, timber and bronze that are some of the most highly developed in the world.

Criterion (iii): The seven monument ensembles represent an exceptional testimony to the traditional civilization of the Kathmandu Valley. The cultural traditions of the multi ethnic people who settled in this remote Himalayan valley over the past two millennia, referred to as the Newars, is manifested in the unique urban society which boasts of one of the most highly developed craftsmanship of brick, stone, timber and bronze in the world. The coexistence and amalgamation of Hinduism and Buddhism with animist rituals and Tantrism is considered unique.

Criterion (iv) : The property is comprised of exceptional architectural typologies, ensembles and urban fabric illustrating the highly developed culture of the Valley, which reached an apogee between 1500 and 1800 AD. The exquisite examples of palace complexes, ensembles of temples and stupas are unique to the Kathmandu Valley.

Criterion (vi): The property is tangibly associated with the unique coexistence and amalgamation of Hinduism and Buddhism with animist rituals and Tantrism. The symbolic and artistic values are manifested in the ornamentation of the buildings, the urban structure and often the surrounding natural environment, which are closely associated with legends, rituals and festivals. 

All the attributes that express the outstanding universal value of the Kathmandu Valley are represented through the seven monument zones established with the boundary modification accepted by the World Heritage Committee in 2006. These encompass the seven historic ensembles and their distinct contexts. The majority of listed buildings are in good condition and the threat of urban development is being controlled through the Integrated Management Plan. However the property continues to be vulnerable to encroaching development, in particular new infrastructure.

The authenticity of the property is retained through the unique form, design, material and substance of the monuments, displaying a highly developed traditional craftsmanship and situated within a traditional urban or natural setting. Even though the Kathmandu Valley has undergone immense urbanization, the authenticity of the historic ensembles as well as much of the traditional urban fabric within the boundaries has been retained.

The designated property has been declared a protected monument zone under the Ancient Monument Preservation Act, 1956, providing the highest level of national protection. The property has been managed by the coordinative action of tiers of central government, local government and non-governmental organizations within the responsibilities and authorities clearly enumerated in the Integrated Management Plan for the Kathmandu World Heritage Property adopted in 2007.

The implementation of the Integrated Management Plan will be reviewed in five-year cycles allowing necessary amendments and augmentation to address changing circumstances. A critical component that will be addressed is disaster risk management for the property.

• UNESCO Kathmandu

List of World Heritage in Danger

Inscription Year on the List of World Heritage in Danger

The Nomination files produced by the States Parties are published by the World Heritage Centre at its website and/or in working documents in order to ensure transparency, access to information and to facilitate the preparations of comparative analysis by other nominating States Parties.

The sole responsibility for the content of each Nomination file lies with the State Party concerned. The publication of the Nomination file, including the maps and names, does not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever of the World Heritage Committee or of the Secretariat of UNESCO concerning the history or legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its boundaries.

State of Conservation (SOC)

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Nepalese Cultural Diversity

Nepal is a multi-ethnic, multi-lingual and multi-cultural nation. Different languages and cultures exist in Nepal, which have made a rich unique national culture. It is, in fact, a matter of pride for all of us. Our national identity also depends upon this cultural and ethnic diversity. Nepal is, thus, known in the world as a country rich in cultural and ethnic diversity. This ethnic and cultural diversity, which is also known as the unity in diversity, is an important national heritage, which needs to be further strengthened. Thus, more attention and efforts are needed to promote and develop these languages and cultures on equal basis. The laws of the land prohibit discrimination on the ground of language and ethnicity and guaranteed equal treatment to all languages and cultures. However, some anomalies and contradictions do exist in translating these constitutional provisions into practice and the government is serious to ensure that there is no discrimination on the ground of caste, colour and cultures. The government has already announced the policy of providing primary education in the mother tongue of different ethnic communities to promote and develop all national languages. For this, textbooks on some ethnic languages have been prepared and more are in the process of being written. This is the achievement of the success of the Jana Andolan II that has created a new sense of enthusiasm in all sections of the society.

As a part of creating inclusive democracy, the Interim Constitution has had the provision giving due share in all sectors including bureaucracy and other decision making levels to women, different nationalities and faiths. The government has practically implemented these provisions from which the hitherto backward and marginalised communities have benefitted and got their representation in political and decision making level. The government has been working with full sensitivity to ensure ethnic and gender balance in all sectors. Similarly, efforts are equally underway to preserve and promote all languages and cultures so that Nepal could be developed as a genuine mosaic of all cultures and languages. These are positive efforts that would certainly have a far-reaching impact for the equal development of all ethnic, lingual and cultural communities in the country. Although the government is effortful, its efforts alone may not be sufficient. Thus, there should be equal efforts and contribution from all sectors for preservation and promotion of ethnic and cultural diversity. Now the constitution writing process is underway and the political parties are effortful to institutionalise the cultural diversity and promote all languages and cultures so that Nepal will continue to become a unique country .

Culture and Society of Nepal

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Culture  & Society of Nepal

The culture of Nepal is rich and unique. The cultural heritage of Nepal has evolved over the centuries. This multi-dimensional heritage encompasses the diversities of Nepal’s ethnic, tribal, and social groups, and it manifests in music and dance; art and craft; folklore and folktales; languages and literature; philosophy and religion; festivals and celebration; foods and drinks.

Dance and music

Legends state that dances in the Indian subcontinent originated in the abode of Lord Shiva — the Himalayas and the Himalayan Kingdom of Nepal — where he performed the tandava dance. This indicates that dance traditions of Nepal are very ancient. With altitudes and ethnicity, the dances of Nepal slightly change in style as well as in the costumes. The Dishka, a dance performed at weddings, includes intricate footwork and arm movements. Accompanying music and musical instruments change in tune with the themes, which revolve around topics like harvesting of crops, marriage rites, war stories, a lonely girl’s yearning for her love, and several other themes and stories from everyday life in the villages.

Languages and literature

As per the 2011 census, 123 languages are spoken in Nepal. Nepal’s linguistic heritage has evolved from three major language groups: Indo-Aryan, Tibeto-Burman, and indigenous. The major languages of Nepal (percent spoken as mother tongue) are Nepali (44.6%), Maithili (11.7%), Bhojpuri (6%), Tharu (5.8%), Tamang (5.1%), Nepal Bhasa (3.2%), Magar (3%) and Bajjika (3%).

Nepali, written in Devanagari script, is the official national language and serves as lingua franca among Nepalese ethno-linguistic groups. Maithili language that was originated in Mithila region of Nepal is the de facto official language of Nepal and Madhesh as a whole. Maithili is spoken in Nepal as a second language. Extinct languages of Nepal include Kusunda, Madhesiya and Waling.

Religions and philosophy

The 2001 census identified 80.6% of the population being Hindu. Buddhism was practiced by about 11% of the population (although many people labelled Hindu or Buddhist often practice a syncretic blend of Hinduism, Buddhism, and/or animist traditions). About 3.2% practice Islam and 3.6% of the population follows the indigenous Kirant religion. Christianity is practiced officially by less than 0.5%.

Hindu and Buddhist traditions in Nepal go back more than two millennia. In Lumbini, Buddha was born, and Pashupatinath temple, Kathmandu, is an old and famous Shiva temple of Hindus. Nepal has several other temples and Buddhist monasteries, as well as places of worship of other religious groups. Traditionally, Nepalese philosophical thoughts are ingrained with the Hindu and Buddhist philosophical ethos and traditions, which include elements of Kashmir Shaivism, Nyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism, works of Karmacharyas of Bhaktapur, and tantric traditions. Tantric traditions are deep rooted in Nepal, including the practice of animal sacrifices. Five types of animals, always male, are considered acceptable for sacrifice: water buffalo, goats, sheep, chickens, and ducks. Cows are very sacred animals and are never considered acceptable for sacrifice.

Festivals and celebrations

Several of the festivals of Nepal last from one to several days. Dashain is the longest and the most important festival of Nepal. Generally Dashain falls in late September to mid-October, right after the end of the monsoon season. It is “a day of Victory over Demons”. The Newars celebrate the festival as Mohani. Tihar or Swanti and Chhath are another important festivals of Nepal. New Year’s Day of the lunar calendar Nepal Sambat occurs at this time.

Other important festivals include Buddha Jayanti (the celebration of the birth of Buddha)Maha Shivaratri (a festival of Lord Shiva) and during Maha Shivaratri festivities, some people consume excessive drinks and smoke charas.Sherpas, mostly located at higher altitudes and in the Mount Everest region, celebrate Mani Rimdu , for the good of the world .

Most festivals include dancing and music, and a variety of foods are consumed during festivals and on special occasions.

The Sagan ceremony is the ritualized presentation of five food items (boiled egg, smoked fish, meat, lentil cake and rice wine) to a person which is done to bring good fortune as per Tantric tradition.

Architecture and archeology

Nepal Sumpada Sangha (Nepal Heritage Society) has compiled an inventory of 1,262 significant architectural and archeological sites in Nepal outside Kathmandu Valley.

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The Fascinating Cultural Diversity of Nepal: Exploring the Ethnic Groups

Considering that Nepal ranks among the most culturally prominent nations, it is one of the most desired countries engulfed with an array of amazing people who practice and follow different religions and cultures. What makes the people of this Nation unique is not confined by its versatile demography but rather by its hospitality, tolerance of cultural differences and nuances of simplicity and peacefulness.

Nepal, revered for its diverse landscapes, inhabiting numerous natural and historical beauties, counts to serve all types of travelers' appetites. Whether you are a geek about historical monuments, arts and architecture of Nepal or are pivoted towards the natural charm, Nepal will serve you a fascinating pallet of courteously subtle and enigmatic gratification.

Nepal's fascinating cultural diversity has resulted from the traditionally flowing way of life of the people in this Nation. Shared in an eloquent pattern from generations, it is with great pride people in Nepal showcase their culture and the ancient craft of living.

Despite being a geographically small nation, Nation exhibits a dash of diversity in all regions, including ethnicity, religion, geography and tradition, adding to its versatility and opulence. Formed with millennials' passion, Nepal's cultural diversity and its traditional constituents are formulated by values, ethnic assimilation, and social and tribal community. One can witness the reflection of these values in its folk and traditional music, art, literature, dance, language and folklore.

What Nepalese are coping with representing is the harmonized constituent of the Nation's wealthy and diversified civilization.

The Fascinating Cultural Diversity of Nepal: Exploring the Ethnic Groups That Define the Nation’s Rich Heritage

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The fascinating cultural diversity of Nepal previews insights into infused ethnical influences and cultural amalgamation of Tibeto-Mongolian and Indo-Aryan influences paved through an illustrious history of conquest, trade and migration. Over the years, the nation has manifested its distinct taste and style, symbolizing various Buddhist and Hindu sources. The cultural diversity of numerous tribal, ethnic, and social groups pertaining to residing in different altitudes has built its unique draft of philosophies, art and craft, folktales, festivities and celebrations, transitioned subtly over the period.

Nepal is abode to over 125 ethnic groups, beckoning to allocate its supple characteristics significantly shaping the nation's culture, economy and politics.

Prominent Ethnic Groups in Nepal

Delineated using ethnic identity, language and caste system, Nepal is a garland of Ethnic diversity, constituting the prominent groups being Chettri, Brahman, Magar, Tharu, Tamang, and Newar, to name a few.

The total aggregate population of Nepal is 30 million, out of which over 3 million are employed in foreign, mostly constituting male labourers.

Chhetri (Khas)

The Nepali speakers of the Khas community are the most renowned ethnic group in Nepal, constituting 16.6% of the total population.

Descendents of medieval Indian migrants, the Chettris are renowned as administrators, military elites, and governers, shaping the destiny of the Khas Kingdom and the formidable Gorkha Kingdom that eventually unified Nepal. Their nobility flourished, permeating the civil administration and governance.

The major highlight of Nepalese Chetri society has been the ruling Shah dynasty (1768-2008), Pande Family, the Basnyat family, the Thapa family and the Rana Prime Ministers (1846-1953).

Bahun (Hill)

The Nepali speakers of the Bahun community are the second most populous group, with 12.2% of Nepal’s population, according to the 2011 Nepal census.

Emerging as a revered Varna, a different community whose roots intertwine with the majestic Himalayan belt of South Asia. Their reverence shines in the pages of history, which are mysteriously embodied as the essence of tradition and spirituality in Nepal’s cultural tapestry.

Bahuns have been known for their ascension of remarkable feasts, boasting a staggering 39.2% civil service representation despite their 12.1% population in the nation. They are ranked among the highest in the country, with a civil service ratio of 3.2 times, in contrast to Chetr’s 1.6 times.

Madhesi People

The Madhesi People of Nepal take up the third place at 12.07% of the ethnic community in the Nepal context.

The term “Madhesi” encompasses numerous cultural groups, including Hindu caste groups, Marwaris, Dalits and indigenous communities like Bhojpuris, Awadhis, Maithilis, and Bajjikas.

Due to the shared cultural traditions and familial ties with their neighbouring counterparts across the border in Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, and Bihar, the Madhesi people possess a rich heritage expanding to encompass all citizens of the Terai regions of Nepal. 

The Newars are one of the most renowned and eminent ethnic communities deeply intertwined in the fabric of Hinduism and Buddhism in Nepal. They have fostered a sophisticated urban civilization as the proud custodians of Nepal’s religion, culture and society.

 Newar consistently ranks Nepal’s most economically and socially advanced community, identified by the Human Development Index with a vibrant population of 1,321,933.

Exploring the Traditions, Festivals, and Customs of Ethnic Communities of Nepal

Glaring away from the sublimity of the Mountains and bounded natural resources of Nepal, we ponder the insightful cultural resonance of Nepalese people pertaining to their customs, traditions, cultural norms and ethics. Despite being a relatively small country, Nepal has a magnanimous directory of religious connotations, festivities, and cultural events dating back to ancient mythology and epics.

The result of divergent ethnic backgrounds and practices forms diversity in beliefs and culture. But the hearts that beat Nepali unites people from all over the region in celebrating the auspiciousness and splendor of significant festivals.

The vivid festivals celebrated in this nation are the epitome of the distinct cultural diversity of Nepal. Let us take a proximal outlook on Nepal’s diversity through the festivals celebrated in this domain.

Dashain and Tihar

The grandest and the most eminent festival celebrated in Nepal is the Dashain and Tihar, during the month of September and October in the Gregorian calendar.

Dashain, steeped in Hindu mythology, commemorates the triumphant victory of Goddess Durga over the malevolent Mahishasura. Conversely, Tihar embraces the radiance of lights and colours dedicated to Goddess Laxmi, the embodiment of prosperity and wealth.

Beyond the confines of faith, Dashain and Tihar symbolize unity, heritage, and the universal desire for happiness and abundance.

Buddha Jayanti

Marking the birthday of Lord Buddha, Buddha Jayanti is celebrated on the whole moon night of either May or June. Born in the sacred lands of Lumbini in 623 BC as a prince of the Shakya dynasty, now settled in the Kapilvastu district, the legacy of Buddha infuses the air.

On this auspicious day, you can observe Nepal coming to life with jubilation, commemorating the profound teachings and noble path set forth by the enlightened one. One can witness devotees, peace seekers and Buddhist communities flocking towards pilgrimage to Lumbini and Buddhist pilgrimage sites to honour the birth of their revered master.

It is this time of the year you can sit and contemplate the radiating divine energy flourishing in the adorned Monasteries, gumbas and chaityas and observe countless visitors paying their homage and bask in the festival's spirit.

As the vibrant autumn season dawns upon the enchanting land of Nepal, a joyous festival known as Jatra takes centre stage, spanning an exhilarating eight days in September.

This auspicious occasion marks the celestial descent of Indra, the revered King of Heaven, as depicted in Hindu mythology.

The festivities commence with the majestic erection of a majestic wooden pole, crafted from the finest pine, standing tall in Basantapur Square, a revered site before the ancient Hanuman Dhoka Palace.

Amidst an atmosphere brimming with excitement, the grand procession unfolds, with the revered Living Goddess Kumari adorning her chariot gracefully parading through the streets of Kathmandu.

The streets come alive as crowds gather, enchanted by the mesmerizing spectacle, accompanied by the rhythmic dance of masked performers known as Lakheys, captivating the hearts of thousands of awe-struck spectators.

Fagun Purnima (Holi)

Fagun Purnima, also known as Holi (the festival of colours), emerges as a joyful celebration of Hindu mythology in the kaleidoscope of Nepalese festivals.

Derived from the name of the mythical demoness Holika, this vibrant festival symbolizes the triumph of good over evil. Legends narrate the tale of Prahalad, a devout devotee of Lord Vishnu, whose father, the demon king Mahisasur, considered him a mortal enemy.

Enraged, the king ordered his fire-immune sister, Holika, to eliminate Prahalad. However, divine intervention prevailed, as Holika perished in the same flames she intended to engulf the boy while he emerged unscathed.

Holi embraces a spirit of mirth, colours, and unbridled happiness to commemorate this miraculous event.

Falling in late February or early March, this festival has transcended cultural boundaries, captivating the hearts of both locals and tourists alike with its infectious zest for life.

From Mountains to Plains: Discovering Nepal’s Rich Tapestry of Ethnic Diversity

From the deepest gorge in the world, Kali-Gandaki” to the tallest point on the planet, Mt. Everest, Nepal has it all; diverse climate, outstanding bio-diversity, multi-lingual society, and a plethora of people scattered all over the tumultuous geography of the domain. According to anthropologists, Nepal is divided into 60 ethnic groups comprising various shades of clan, tribe, race and case. Among these groups, Many have their distinct language, whereas Nepali is almost spoken in the entire region of the nation.

Ethnic Groups found in the Hill and Mountainous Regions

The hilly region comprises 29.5 per cent of the total area of Nepal. It is in such mesmerizing hills the presence of the Tamang community graces every wanderlust trekker, incorporating a vital part of the region's cultural tapestry.

Rooted in their heritage, the Tamangs carry the essence of their Tibetan origins, their language resonating with the beauty of the Tibeto-Burman lineage. Embracing a rich history, Tamang lore speaks of their migration to Nepal as valiant Tibetan cavalry troops during the era of Genghis Khan.

While their spiritual path finds solace in Tibetan Buddhism, the Tamangs have forged a unique practice devoid of traditional monks, nuns, or monasteries.

Their existence emanates a profound sense of resilience and authenticity, weaving their emotional narrative into Nepal's diverse cultural landscape.

The frequency of Tamang people is highest in Nepal's Rasuwa, Makwanpur and Nuwakot districts.

The Himalayan region comprises 15 per cent of the total area of Nepal. Within the tapestry of Nepal's ethnic mosaic, one group stands out with unparalleled fame—the Sherpas, though their numbers constitute a mere fraction of the population.

Often misunderstood by foreigners, the term "Sherpa" is mistakenly used to refer to all porters, obscuring the distinct identity of these remarkable individuals.

Originating from the beautiful regions of Solu Khumbu and Helambu, the Sherpas have ascended to global recognition since the pioneering climbing expeditions of the 1950s.

Renowned for their unparalleled mountaineering skills and unwavering resilience as high-altitude porters, the Sherpas embody the spirit of the Himalayas, encapsulating the indomitable human spirit that conquers the towering peaks with steadfast determination.

The frequency of Sherpa people is prominent in the eastern regions of Nepal, like Solu and Khumbu and some in the Rolwaling and Helambu regions north of Kathmandu.

Nestled amidst the awe-inspiring expanse of the Annapurna region and prominent settlements in the east, a warm encounter awaits with the Gurungs—a Mongoloid community whose lineage extends to the captivating realms of Tibet.

The Gurungs, endowed with a rich heritage, find their purpose not only in serving the noble Nepal army and police but also in the esteemed Gurkha regiments of the British and Indian armies. Their unwavering dedication and prowess have earned them a reputation that resonates across borders.

Engaging with the Gurungs is an opportunity to witness firsthand the resilience and valour embedded in their cultural fabric, leaving an indelible impression of their remarkable contributions and inspiring legacy.

Plains: A Harmonious Melting pot

Descending from the mountains to the fertile plains of the Terai, we enter a different realm of ethnic diversity. Here, the vibrant traditions of the Tharus, with their deep connection to the land and unique craftsmanship, enchant visitors.

The Madhesis, with their roots reaching across the border to India, bring a fusion of cultural influences that add depth to Nepal's ethnic tapestry. The harmonious coexistence of Hindu caste groups, Muslims, and indigenous people paints a captivating picture of unity amidst diversity.

Linguistic and Religious

The country is unified over 125 different ethnolinguistic groups, whereas the official language spoken in Nepal is Nepali, a relative of Hindi spread and practised by 45% of the total population. However, this does not leave travellers barren, as English is a generally spoken language in Nepal, which comes with a bit of an accent. However, if you are able to communicate in English, you can easily find the next person in Nepal who speaks English or can aid in understanding and responding to your basic requests and queries.

As we have discussed earlier, Nepal's predominantly adopted religion is Hindu, which is about 80% of the total population; other equally significant religions in Nepal include Buddhism, Muslim, and Christianity, to name a few.

Buddhism, being a minority religion at around 10%, Practice of Buddhism is revered and taken very sincerely throughout the reign, although its inception was from the domain.

Unity in Diversity: A Lesson to Embrace

The rich tapestry of Nepal's ethnic diversity is a testament to its people's resilience and adaptability. Despite the geographical and cultural differences, a sense of unity prevails, strengthening the nation's social fabric. The interweaving threads of different ethnic communities form a cohesive whole where acceptance and mutual respect thrive. Nepal stands as an example to the world, showcasing the harmonious coexistence of diverse ethnicities and inspiring us to celebrate our differences.

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Preserving Nepal’s heritage

Alaina B. Teplitz

Nepal’s rich cultural heritage is woven into the fabric of everyday life. From the temples and palaces in Patan Durbar Square to the small alcoves holding devotional statues nested on busy streets all over Kathmandu, Nepal’s unique architectural and cultural heritage is recognised worldwide. This remarkable heritage is not only part of what makes Nepal a popular travel destination, but also something that needs to be properly protected, maintained and preserved, so that future generations can enjoy it as much as we do today.

For over two decades the United States has actively supported efforts to preserve cultural heritage sites across Nepal by restoring and reinforcing them, and in the process, mitigating the impact of potential natural disasters and contributing to the tourism potential as well as the sustainment of livelihoods based in traditional crafts such as stone carving and wood working. The United States Government’s Ambassador’s Fund for Cultural Preservation (AFCP) has already invested over $2.2 million in 19 different projects. These efforts include seismic strengthening of major cultural heritage sites throughout Nepal, including sections of the Patan Royal Palace which survived the 2015 earthquakes largely intact. This strengthening proved effective, and presents a way forward for better protection of Nepal’s cultural heritage sites.

The United States Embassy is pleased to have forged a unique partnership with Miyamoto Global Disaster Relief—a US-based nonprofit organisation, to implement our latest Ambassador’s Fund for Cultural Preservation project. The $700,000 grant will repair the Gaddi Baithak in Kathmandu Durbar Square and improve the palace’s structural safety and resilience to earthquakes. The Gaddi Baithak is a location of cultural significance for Nepalis and a symbol of Nepal to the world. I am proud that we will be a part of its restoration and hope that it serves as a symbol of our commitment to continue cultural preservation in Nepal.

As the earthquake damage to historic monuments in Nepal demonstrated, cultural heritage needs a place within every nation’s and every community’s integrated emergency preparedness and response plans, where it is often overlooked. Over the past several decades, communities and governments worldwide made progress in developing preparedness and response plans for public health and safety emergencies and myriad natural disasters, including earthquakes. Historic buildings and other types of cultural heritage are the backdrops of our lives and tell the story of where we come from. They must be a part of the plan.

Traditional techniques

Architects, engineers, and seismologists are looking directly into the damaged and ruined historic buildings in order to understand why certain buildings survived the earthquakes and others collapsed. In their search for answers, they have made important discoveries and expanded our knowledge of the structural strengths and limitations of traditional Newari and other architecture indigenous to the region. What they have learned promises to be of great benefit as restoration and reconstruction efforts shift into high gear.

Even under the best of circumstances, the restoration of historic buildings takes time. With the help of volunteers from Nepal and around the world, Nepal’s Department of Archaeology was able to assess the nature and extent of damage to the Kathmandu Valley’s registered historic monuments soon after the earthquakes. Meanwhile, NGOs and professional organisations such as the Kathmandu Valley Preservation Trust, the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS), and the Washington-based Smithsonian Institution mobilised teams on the ground. These teams stabilised damaged buildings and recovered, recorded and stored historic statues and architectural elements in secure locations for eventual reuse in restoration and reconstruction.

In addition to historic community structures, many private homes in historic areas were damaged in the earthquakes. These homes have unique historic architecture, and it is important to prioritise reconstruction in a manner that allows those communities to retain these important cultural elements. This is harder to do because no one is paying homeowners to rebuild with cultural integrity. However, it is possible to build back safer using some traditional techniques and architectural elements that will preserve the historic image of Nepal. The wood banding in many traditional homes, for example, makes a building seismically safer. This is often seen from the outside as a carved snake, a perceived decoration, when the real purpose was to knit a building’s walls together.

Good business sense too

Protecting and preserving Nepal’s cultural heritage sites also makes good business sense. For example, when I travelled to Mustang this past June, I saw chortens, monasteries, and intricate paintings unlike anything I have seen anywhere in the world. Unfortunately, many of these incredible cultural sites were in disrepair. If these important relics can be preserved and upgraded, I believe that Mustang could become an international tourist destination.  Attracting more tourists to Mustang—or even just to Nepal—will require a concerted effort to improve infrastructure. It is encouraging that the government is taking steps to improve airports in Pokhara and Bhairahawa, two important tourist hubs, and I hope work continues to improve roads throughout the country so more people can access and appreciate Nepal’s incredible cultural heritage.

As we continue restoring and constructing Nepal’s cultural heritage sites, there should also be an emphasis on constructing appropriate physical infrastructures so that the monuments and cultural heritage sites are accessible for all people, regardless of their physical limitations, disabilities and age. Nepal has an opportunity to use traditional materials and construction methods to incorporate accessibility during restorations. Nepal can attract new customers and increase tourism revenue by making sites accessible to all, as tourists with disabilities are becoming a growing part of the market. Accessibility will also allow all people of Nepal, including those with disabilities, to better explore their heritage.

Tourists from all over the world travel to Nepal—including 50,000 from the United States in 2015. Some come to Nepal for trekking, but others come to experience Nepal’s diverse mixture of religions, ethnic groups, and cultures reflected in its architecture, traditions and festivals. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council, tourism contributed $1.7 billion dollars to Nepal’s economy in 2015, about 9 percent of the country’s GDP. However, there is ample room for improvement. Approximately 550,000 tourists visited Nepal in 2015, but other Asian countries saw many more—1.8 million in Sri Lanka, 3.5 million in Laos, 4.7 million in Myanmar, 4.8 million in Cambodia and more than 25 million in Malaysia, according to the United Nations World Tourism Organisation. Preserving and restoring Nepal’s monuments and traditions—as well as creating the infrastructure needed to reach them—can attract tourists to visit Nepal. Furthermore, by investing in cultural heritage, Nepal will train more traditional craftspeople—keeping these traditions alive and creating new jobs. Nepal’s history can serve as a foundation for its future prosperity.

Teplitz is US Ambassador to Nepal

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Culture in Nepal: An Exploration of the Legacy and its Way Forward

2018, Kathmandu School of Law Review

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Stelios Lekakis , Shobhit Shakya

Heritage preservation is a resource-intensive activity nested among other processes in the public administration, related to identity building and touristic product enhancement. Strategies and schemata associated with heritage preservation sprang in the western world after WWII and they have been adapted, in the form of 'heritage management', in various contexts with questionable effectiveness regarding sustainability. Our paper discusses the case of the post-earthquake cultural, social and political landscape of the World Heritage Site of Kathmandu valley in Nepal. By reviewing the bibliography and drawing upon various case studies of post-earthquake heritage restoration, we focus on the traditional ways of managing human and cultural resources in the area as related to the modern national heritage management mechanism. We also examine how traditional practices, re-interpreted into a modern context, can point towards inclusive and sustainable forms of collaboration based on the commons. We shed light on the elements of an emerging management system that could protect the vulnerable monuments through community participation, adapted to the challenging realities of the Nepalese heritage and its stakeholders.

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Salik R A M Subedi

The main objective of this article is to illustrate the roles of the Guthi system in Nepalese society. The paper discusses the contribution of Guthi system for the protection of heritage in the Kathmandu Valley. Effects of technological advancement on the ability of the Guthi system to preserve and maintain tangible and intangible cultural heritages of Nepal are yet inalienable aspects of the research. The Guthi system seems to have been focusing on the preservation of the religious, cultural, and social services along with organizing and performing rituals, Jatra, festival, chariot, worshiping deities, promotion, and protection of temples and monasteries. The establishment of the Guthi system was based on the social and cooperative promotion of such cultural and religious aspects. This system has endured a number of centuries the backbone of Nepalese culture and community. Guthi endowments were/are given to religious and charitable institutions. Lands are granted in order to mainta...

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Conflict between heritage management authorities and the local residents has been critical to sustainable management of the World Heritage Sites (WHS) in Kathmandu Valley. This paper attempts to find out the reasons of such conflict by analyzing the facets of prevalent non-compliance of rules and regulations in Kathmandu Valley’s three World Heritage Sites: Hanuman Dhoka, Patan and Bhaktapur Durbar Squares. This is a qualitative analysis of perceptions, understanding and interests of the local people and the heritage management authorities. The paper also reviews the existing national and international policy provisions on conservation of WHS and makes special notes about the conservation of private houses in the WHS. Cases were selected using snow-ball sampling technique. Structured interviews were conducted with key informants including concerned government officials and the local residents. The findings include such reasons of non-compliance of WHS regulations as overlapping and ...

Journal of Cultural Heritage Management and Sustainable Development

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Cultural Heritage

There are several monuments scattered in and around Swayambhu Mahchaitya area and it is believed that Swayambhu Mahachaitya is one of the oldest monuments in Nepal. The tradition of conservation and management system has still been continuing in these cultural heritage, which was developed during the time memorable and there is no written evidence when they were built for the first time, but proves somehow with inscription of later period. Therefore, still need to research or study on them in one hand and in the other hand continuation of tradition on conservation and management system preserved the cultural heritage of Swayambhu area; due to which this significant heritage site has inscribed on the UNESCO's World Heritage List in 1979 as a component of Kathmandu Valley World Heritage Property.Some issues and challenges in conservation and management of the site need to be addressed considering to the traditional system and compatibility with international norms and provisions, that are also connected to the site as listed as a component of the world heritage property.

Xavier Romão , Neel Kamal Chapagain

This is a proceedings of an international conference held in Kathmandu in November 2013, finally published recently. It has my paper on 'Rethinking authenticity....' along with several other good papers.

Each society and place has its own heritage; some evolve with time and make an outstanding heritage while others disappear over the course of time. Every human being has an individual heritage, which he/she values. But the value of heritage can be outweighed by some other priorities in life. In the changing dynamics of life, the charm of adopting a modern lifestyle can be a challenge to heritage. On the one hand the luxury of lifestyle may threaten the heritage but the conservation of heritage may also compromise human access to a better lifestyle. In a country like Nepal where there are less resources for development projects and even less for heritage and its conservation. Kathmandu Valley although being a capital city, faces a challenge for the regular supply of water and electricity. The Kathmandu Valley counts with seven monuments inscribed as UNESCO World Heritage. Water storage tanks, solar panels, cable lines etc. are a basic need for people now in every house as an alternative to the basic needs which government fails to supply. But modifications of the listed houses are not allowed according to the laws. This paper will discuss the aspects of people's need for the right to a standard of life is compromising the World Heritage and vice versa with the examples of Kathmandu Valley. Mismanagement, a lack of concepts in planning and lack of support from the government are making people reluctant to accept the World Heritage status. The paper also deals with issues that are being faced by people i.e. lack of government support maintaining the heritage and also the burden of maintaining it. In the context of developing nations how people choose their right to World Heritage is a question to be dealt with from the perspective of developing nations.

Sapana Shakya

Every building requires maintenance for achieving its projected lifespan. Historic buildings have been able to stand despite the passage of their projected lifespan. And, maintenance approaches has always helped to renew a building's life. In the context of the commercialized traditional settlements of Kathmandu Valley, historic buildings are still a part of the daily lives (whether private or public). Culturally celebrating the practice of cleaning and maintenance twice a year and founding day of every public monument, the communities and Guthis of Kathmandu valley has also undergone a contemporary bureaucratic management system. This thesis aims to identify the existing practices of maintenance management in historic buildings in Patan. It attempts at qualitative analysis taking three national cases for a collective instrumental case study by conducting within case analysis. In order to support the finding from the case analysis, a survey questionnaire to collect the ranking of pre-identified criteria for maintenance management of historic buildings in case of Patan has been done by purposive sampling method. The views and suggestions of the acting professionals in the field of historic buildings obtained through a semi-structured interview has added value to the finding from the representative cases. Conservation plans and maintenance policies, maintenance practices, materials, workmanship, financial sustainability, documentation and record-keeping and, procurement are the key features of maintenance management identified from the case studies and interviews. The outcome of this thesis could later be used as a basis for coming up with a suitable maintenance management programme for historic buildings in Kathmandu valley.

Neel Kamal Chapagain

page numbers 9-11 of the newsletter (follow the link above) The first book "Monument Conservation in Nepal" is a book that - through personal experience of the author, Saphalya Amatya - highlights the scenario of "monument conservation" in Nepal (Kathmandu valley in particular). The second book is a publication by INTBAU based on an international conference of the same title "The Venice Charter Revisited". The first book presents a prevailing scenarios in a cluster of World Heritage Sites (in Nepal) that is so much framed by the Venice Charter, and the second book brings in a new wave that attempts to move beyond the Venice charter.

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Essay on Nepali Culture

Students are often asked to write an essay on Nepali Culture in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Nepali Culture

Introduction to nepali culture.

Nepali culture is like a beautiful garden with many kinds of flowers. It is a mix of traditions, values, and customs. This culture comes from the people of Nepal, a country in South Asia. It is known for its mountains, like Mount Everest, and its history.

Language and Religion

Festivals and food.

Nepali festivals are colorful and full of life. Dashain and Tihar are the biggest ones. People eat special foods, play music, and enjoy dances. The food in Nepal is tasty and includes dishes like dal bhat (rice and lentils) and momo (dumplings).

Traditional Clothing

In Nepal, traditional clothes are worn with pride. Men wear a daura-suruwal and women wear a sari or kurta. These clothes are often made with bright colors and fine materials, showing the beauty of Nepali handwork.

Art and Music

250 words essay on nepali culture.

Nepali culture is like a beautiful garden with many kinds of flowers. It is rich with traditions, festivals, music, and dances. Nepal is a country in South Asia, home to the tall Mount Everest and many other mountains. The people living there come from different backgrounds and speak many languages, but they all share the culture of Nepal.

Festivals and Celebrations

One of the most important parts of Nepali culture is festivals. Dashain is the biggest festival where families come together, enjoy food, and children get gifts. Tihar, another festival, is when people light up their homes with candles and lamps. They also honor animals like crows, dogs, and cows. These festivals show how Nepalese people love family, nature, and animals.

Food in Nepal

The food of Nepal is tasty and unique. Dal Bhat, which is rice and lentil soup, is a common meal. Momos, which are like dumplings filled with meat or vegetables, are very popular too. The food is not just about eating; it is a way for families to sit together and share their day.

In Nepal, people wear special clothes that are part of their culture. Men often wear a dress called Daura-Suruwal and a cap named Dhaka Topi. Women wear beautiful long skirts called Gunyu Cholo. These clothes are not just for daily wear but also for special occasions to show respect to their culture.

In conclusion, Nepali culture is full of life, colors, and joy. It brings people together through festivals, food, and clothing. Even though it has many different parts, they all fit together to make the culture of Nepal special and interesting for everyone, especially for students learning about new places in the world.

500 Words Essay on Nepali Culture

In Nepal, many languages are spoken. Nepali is the main language, but people also speak Maithili, Bhojpuri, and dozens of other languages. This shows how diverse the country is. Religion is a big part of life in Nepal. Most people follow Hinduism or Buddhism. The two religions mix in many ways, showing respect and peace among the people.

Nepal is known for its colorful festivals. Dashain is the biggest festival. It is a time when families come together, share food, and give blessings. Tihar, also known as the festival of lights, is another important celebration. People light up their homes and honor animals like dogs and cows. These festivals show the joy and kindness in Nepali culture.

Food and Cuisine

Food in Nepal is tasty and unique. Dal Bhat, a dish of lentils and rice, is eaten almost every day. Momos, which are dumplings filled with meat or vegetables, are a favorite snack. The food is not just about taste; it is also about bringing family and friends together to share a meal.

Music and Dance

Music and dance are important in Nepal. They tell stories of the land and its people. Traditional instruments like the ‘madal’ and ‘sarangi’ make music that touches the heart. Folk dances are performed during festivals. They are full of energy and smiles, showing the happiness of the Nepali spirit.

Arts and Crafts

Nepali culture is a wonderful mix of people, traditions, and nature. It is like a colorful painting that tells a story of harmony and friendship. The culture is deep and alive, touching everyone who experiences it. It is a treasure that the people of Nepal share with the world, and it makes the country a special place full of warmth and beauty.

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An Essay on The Cultural Heritage of Nepal

Table of contents, introduction.

Nepal’s cultural heritage is a treasure trove of history, traditions, and customs that have been passed down through generations. The country’s unique geography, with its towering mountains and rolling hills, has contributed to the development of a distinct culture that is shaped by various factors. In this essay, we will explore the rich and diverse cultural heritage of Nepal.

Definition of Cultural Heritage

Cultural heritage refers to the inherited values, beliefs, traditions, and artifacts that define a community’s way of life. It includes everything from language and literature to music, dance, art, architecture, and cuisine. Cultural heritage is crucial to maintaining a community’s identity and sense of belonging and provides a window into the past.

Overview of Nepal’s Cultural Heritage

Nepal’s cultural heritage is diverse and has evolved over thousands of years. The country is home to over 125 ethnic groups, each with its distinct traditions and customs. Nepal’s cultural heritage includes art, architecture, music, dance, literature, festivals, religion, spirituality, cuisine, sports, and traditional medicine.

The Importance of Preserving Cultural Heritage

Cultural heritage is an essential part of a community’s identity and sense of belonging. It provides a window into the past and helps us understand our shared history and traditions. Preserving cultural heritage helps promote cultural diversity, which fosters respect and understanding between different communities. It also supports local economies and can help attract tourism, which can be an essential source of revenue for communities.

Historical Background of Nepal

Ancient Civilizations of Nepal

Nepal’s history dates back over 2,000 years, and the country has been home to various civilizations. The major ancient civilizations of Nepal include the Licchavi and the Malla dynasties. These dynasties left a significant impact on Nepal’s cultural heritage, including art, architecture, language, and literature.

The Unification of Nepal under King Prithvi Narayan Shah

Nepal was once a group of small, independent kingdoms and territories until King Prithvi Narayan Shah united them into a single country in the mid-18th century. This unification played a significant role in shaping Nepal’s cultural heritage.

The Impact of British Colonialism on Nepalese Culture

British colonialism also had an impact on Nepalese culture. The influence of British culture was felt in areas such as education, language, and literature. Nepalese culture also shaped British colonialism, with Nepalese soldiers playing a crucial role in the British Indian Army.

The Art and Architecture of Nepal

The Traditional Arts of Nepal

Nepal has a rich tradition of art, which includes painting, sculpture, and wood carving. The Thangka paintings and wood carvings are particularly famous in Nepal and have been influenced by Tibetan art styles.

Famous Nepalese Art Styles and Movements

Newar art is a distinct style of art that is prevalent in Nepal and has been shaped by the traditions of the Newar community. Other popular art movements in Nepal include the Madhubani art style, which originated in India, and the Bhaktapur pottery style, which is specific to the Bhaktapur region.

Symbols and Motifs Used in Nepalese Architecture

Nepalese architecture is famous for its intricate designs and motifs. The use of animals, deities, and other symbols is common in Nepalese architecture. The most famous example of Nepalese architecture is the Kathmandu Durbar Square, which has several ancient temples and palaces.

Festivals and Celebrations in Nepal

Overview of Nepalese Festivals

Nepal is known for its vibrant festivals and celebrations. The country has over 50 official festivals, including religious and national festivals. The festivals are usually associated with specific dates, events, and seasons.

The Role of Festivals in Nepalese Culture

Festivals play a crucial role in Nepalese culture and help to promote social harmony, cultural diversity, and community cohesion. The festivals are a celebration of Nepal’s rich cultural heritage and include traditional music, dance, and crafts.

Popular Festivals and Celebrations and How They Are Celebrated

Some of the most popular festivals in Nepal include the Dashain festival, which celebrates the victory of good over evil, and the Tihar festival, which is a festival of lights. During these festivals, families come together to celebrate, exchange gifts and food, and participate in various social and cultural activities.

Music and Dance in Nepal

Traditional Nepalese Music Genres

Nepal has a rich tradition of music, including classical, folk, and devotional music. The classical music of Nepal is known as Gandharva music, and it has been influenced by Indian music. Folk music is popular in rural areas, and many Nepalese songs are related to agriculture, nature, and love.

Famous Nepalese Musicians

Several famous Nepalese musicians have received international recognition, including Narayan Gopal, Aruna Lama, and the 1974 AD band. These musicians have played a significant role in promoting Nepalese music and culture globally.

Popular Nepalese Dance Forms

Nepal has many traditional dance forms, including the Dhime dance, the Chakra dance, and the Lakhe dance. These dances are usually performed during festivals and religious ceremonies and are a celebration of Nepalese culture and traditions.

Religion and Spirituality in Nepal

Nepal’s Religious and Philosophical Traditions

Nepal is a multi-religious country, with Hinduism and Buddhism as the predominant religions. Other religions practiced in Nepal include Islam, Christianity, and Bon. The country also has a rich tradition of philosophy, including the philosophy of Vedanta and Buddhism.

The Role of Religion in Nepalese Culture

Religion plays an essential role in Nepalese culture and daily life. Religious ceremonies and festivals are an integral part of the Nepalese calendar and are celebrated with great fervor and enthusiasm. The temples and other religious sites in Nepal attract thousands of visitors each year.

Important Religious Sites and Practices in Nepal

Nepal is home to several important religious sites, including the Pashupatinath temple, the Boudhanath stupa, and the Swayambhunath stupa. These sites are revered by devotees all over the world and attract a considerable number of tourists each year.

Cuisine of Nepal

Overview of Nepalese Cuisine

Nepalese cuisine is known for its unique taste and cooking techniques. The cuisine is influenced by India, Tibet, and China and uses a variety of herbs, spices, and vegetables. Some of the most common dishes include dal bhaat, momos, and thukpa.

Unique Ingredients and Cooking Techniques

Nepali cuisine uses unique ingredients such as Timur, a hot pepper that is native to Nepal. Cooking techniques such as smoking, roasting, and grilling are common in Nepalese cuisine. A variety of herbs and spices are also used in the food, including curry leaves, cumin, and coriander.

Popular Nepali Dishes

Some of the most popular Nepali dishes include momos, a type of dumpling filled with meat or vegetables, and dal bhaat, which is a lentil soup served with rice and vegetables. Another famous Nepalese cuisine is Newari cuisine, which consists of rice, meat, and vegetables cooked in traditional spices.

Language and Literature in Nepal

Nepali language and dialects

Nepal is home to over 100 languages and dialects, with Nepali being the most widely spoken language. Other languages spoken in Nepal include Maithili, Bhojpuri, and Tamang. Each language has its own distinct literature and traditions.

Famous Nepali writers and poets

Nepal has produced many famous writers and poets, including Lakshmi Prasad Devkota, known as the “Shakespeare of Nepal”, and Bhupi Sherchan, a prominent Nepali poet who wrote about love and social issues. Are included.

Literary traditions and themes in Nepali literature

Nepali literature is rich and diverse and has its own distinctive themes and traditions. The themes of love, nature, and social issues are prominent in Nepali literature. Folktales and myths are also an important part of Nepali literary traditions.

Sports and Recreation in Nepal

Popular sports in Nepal

Football is the most popular sport in Nepal, and the country has a national football team. Other popular sports include cricket, volleyball, and basketball. Trekking and mountaineering are also popular recreational activities in Nepal.

Traditional sports and entertainment

Nepal has several traditional games, including Gulli Danda, a game played with a stick and small wooden ball, and Bagh Chal, a board game similar to chess. These sports are an important part of Nepali culture and tradition.

Role of sports in Nepali culture

Sports play an essential role in Nepali culture and promote social unity and community spirit. Sporting events are an opportunity to socialize and celebrate as well as an essential source of entertainment and recreation.

Traditional Medicines in Nepal

Overview of Traditional Nepalese Medicines

Nepal has a rich tradition of traditional medicine, involving the use of natural remedies such as herbs, roots, and bark. Traditional medicines have evolved over thousands of years and have been influenced by Indian and Tibetan medicine.

Role of traditional medicines in Nepali health care

Traditional medicines play an essential role in Nepali healthcare and are used to treat a variety of diseases. Traditional medicines are often combined with modern medicine to provide a holistic approach to health care.

Popular practices and treatments

Some of the most popular Nepali remedies include the use of turmeric for anti-inflammatory properties and the use of goat milk for relaxation. Other treatments include the use of the herb jatamasi, used to promote good sleep, and tulsi, used for respiratory problems.

Ethnic Diversity of Nepal

Overview of Nepal’s ethnic groups

Nepal is home to more than 125 ethnic groups, each with its own distinct customs and traditions. Major ethnic groups include the Newar, Magar, Gurung, Tharu, and Tamang. Each ethnic group has its own language, dress, and customs.

Cultural practices and traditions of different ethnic groups

Each ethnic group in Nepal has its own distinct cultural practices and traditions. Some common customs include music and dance performances, traditional attire, and cooking. These customs are an important part of the identity and cultural heritage of each ethnic group.

Importance of recognizing and preserving ethnic diversity

Preserving ethnic diversity is important to promote cultural harmony and understanding. Recognizing and preserving ethnic diversity helps prevent cultural erosion and promotes respect and tolerance among different communities.

Modern Influences on Nepalese Culture

Impact of globalization on Nepali culture

Globalization has had a significant impact on Nepali culture and traditions. The influence of Western culture can be seen in areas like music, language, and fashion. The growing tourism industry has also brought changes in the way people live and interact.

Changing attitudes towards traditional cultural practices

Changing attitudes towards traditional cultural practices have also had an impact on Nepali culture. Many young people are moving away from traditional lifestyles and adopting more modern lifestyles and attitudes.

Balancing modern influences with cultural preservation efforts

It is important to balance modern influences with cultural conservation efforts to preserve Nepal’s rich cultural heritage. This requires a delicate balance between preserving traditional customs and adopting modern attitudes and practices.

Conservation and Preservation of Nepal’s Cultural Heritage

Challenges facing conservation and preservation efforts

Conservation and conservation efforts face many challenges in Nepal, including lack of funding, lack of awareness, and lack of political will. The growing tourism industry has also put significant pressure on Nepal’s cultural heritage sites.

Successful conservation and protection projects

Despite the challenges, there are many successful conservation and protection projects underway in Nepal. These projects focus on protecting Nepal’s cultural heritage sites and promoting sustainable tourism.

Role of local and international organizations in cultural preservation

Local and international organizations play an important role in cultural preservation efforts in Nepal. They provide funding, raise awareness, and work with local communities to protect and preserve Nepal’s cultural heritage.

Nepal’s rich and diverse cultural heritage is a testament to the country’s history, traditions, and customs. The cultural heritage includes everything from art, architecture, and music to cuisine, literature, and traditional medicine. Preserving Nepal’s cultural heritage is crucial to maintaining the country’s identity and sense of belonging. It promotes respect and understanding between different communities and attracts tourism, which is an essential source of revenue for local economies. Therefore, it is vital that we recognize and preserve Nepal’s rich cultural heritage.

What is Nepal’s most famous festival? One of Nepal’s most famous festivals is Dashain. What is the traditional attire of Nepal? The traditional attire of Nepal varies across different ethnic groups and regions. However, one of the most widely recognized traditional attires in Nepal is the “Daura Suruwal” for men and “Gunyo Cholo” for women. How has modernization affected Nepalese culture? Modernization has had both positive and negative impacts on Nepalese culture: Positive impacts of modernization on Nepalese culture: 1. Increased access to education and technology has led to the spread of new ideas and knowledge. 2. Modern infrastructure and transportation have improved connectivity and accessibility. 3. Economic development and globalization have provided new opportunities for employment and income generation. 4. Modern amenities and services have improved the quality of life for many people. Negative impacts of modernization on Nepalese culture: 1. Traditional values and customs have been diluted or lost in some communities. 2. Western influences and consumerism have led to changes in lifestyle and consumption patterns. 3. Rapid urbanization has resulted in the loss of traditional architectural heritage. 4. Environmental degradation and cultural commodification have occurred in some tourist-centric areas. 5. Generation gaps and conflicts arise due to differing views between traditional and modern practices. It’s important to note that the impact of modernization on Nepalese culture is complex and varied, with different regions and communities experiencing it differently. How can individuals support cultural preservation efforts in Nepal? Individuals can support cultural preservation efforts in Nepal by: 1. Educating themselves about Nepal’s cultural heritage. 2. Respect local customs and traditions when visiting cultural sites. 3. Supporting local artisans by purchasing their products. 4. Volunteering or interning with organizations focused on cultural preservation. 5. Donating to cultural organizations working on heritage conservation. 6. Choosing responsible tourism practices that prioritize cultural preservation. 7. Spreading awareness about Nepal’s cultural heritage through social media and other platforms. 8. Participating in cultural events and festivals. 9. Advocating for policies that protect cultural sites and heritage. 10. Engaging with local communities and fostering cultural exchanges. What are some of Nepal’s must-visit cultural sites? Here are some of Nepal’s must-visit cultural sites: 1. Kathmandu Durbar Square: This UNESCO World Heritage Site in Kathmandu is home to ancient palaces, temples, and intricately carved wooden architecture. 2. Bhaktapur Durbar Square: Located in the city of Bhaktapur, this UNESCO World Heritage Site showcases well-preserved medieval architecture, temples, and royal palaces. 3. Patan Durbar Square: Situated in Lalitpur, Patan Durbar Square is renowned for its exquisite Newar architecture, temples, and the famous Krishna Mandir. 4. Boudhanath Stupa: One of the largest Buddhist stupas in the world, located on the outskirts of Kathmandu. It is an important pilgrimage site and a center of Tibetan Buddhism. 5. Swayambhunath Stupa: Also known as the Monkey Temple, this hilltop stupa in Kathmandu offers panoramic views of the city and is adorned with prayer flags and shrines. 6. Pashupatinath Temple: Situated on the banks of the Bagmati River in Kathmandu, this Hindu temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva and is a major pilgrimage site. 7. Lumbini: The birthplace of Lord Buddha, located in the Terai region of Nepal. Lumbini is a significant pilgrimage site for Buddhists and houses the Maya Devi Temple and other monasteries. 8. Changu Narayan Temple: Situated on a hilltop near Bhaktapur, this ancient Hindu temple is known for its intricate stone carvings and statues. 9. Muktinath Temple: Located in the Mustang district, this sacred site is revered by both Hindus and Buddhists, featuring a Vishnu temple and a Buddhist monastery. 10. Janakpur: A holy city associated with the Hindu epic Ramayana, Janakpur is home to the Janaki Temple, dedicated to Goddess Sita, and hosts vibrant festivals. These cultural sites offer a glimpse into Nepal’s rich history, art, and religious traditions, making them must-visit destinations for travelers seeking to explore the country’s cultural heritage.

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In Search of the Lost Fireflies

By Margaret Renkl

Ms. Renkl is a contributing Opinion writer who covers flora, fauna, politics and culture in the American South.

I first learned about blue ghosts last year from Jennifer Frick-Ruppert , a zoologist at Brevard College in western North Carolina. I was at Brevard for a writers’ conference, and Dr. Frick-Ruppert offered to take me to see the ethereal fireflies that glow without blinking. But it rained that night, and lightning bugs don’t fly in a hard rain. I was heartbroken. I was also determined to get back there this year and try again.

When obligations in May made the timing of that goal unreachable, I set my sights on the later-emerging synchronous fireflies of Great Smoky Mountains National Park, which straddles East Tennessee and western North Carolina. Synchronous fireflies flash in unison — blinking together and then going dark together before blinking together again. Generations of East Tennesseans have called this extraordinary phenomenon the Light Show. So many people want to see them that except for the lucky visitors whose names are chosen in a lottery each year, that area of the park is closed during firefly mating season. I was not one of the lucky ones.

By the time my family left for vacation in western North Carolina in early June, I’d given up on seeing the famous fireflies of the Appalachian forests.

Then Georgann Eubanks, the author of several books about the wild South , volunteered to put me in touch with the naturalist Tal Galton, owner of Snakeroot Ecotours . She said he could point me toward the fireflies I’d been longing to see.

Mr. Galton did much more than point. On a scouting trip into the Pisgah National Forest the night before, he had found the synchronous fireflies going strong at 3,000 feet, and also a sizable population of blue ghosts at 3,800 feet. He offered to take my whole family to see both.

By climbing to an elevation where temperatures would effectively send us backward in time by 10 days or so, we could experience the peak blue-ghost season of late springtime. Dropping to a lower elevation would bring us back into the peak synchronous season of early summer. Mr. Galton calls this strategy “ chasing spring .” He employs it not just for firefly tours but also for wildflower tours and nature retreats.

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Build a Corporate Culture That Works

There’s a widespread understanding that managing corporate culture is key to business success. Yet few companies articulate their culture in such a way that the words become an organizational reality that molds employee behavior as intended.

All too often a culture is described as a set of anodyne norms, principles, or values, which do not offer decision-makers guidance on how to make difficult choices when faced with conflicting but equally defensible courses of action.

The trick to making a desired culture come alive is to debate and articulate it using dilemmas. If you identify the tough dilemmas your employees routinely face and clearly state how they should be resolved—“In this company, when we come across this dilemma, we turn left”—then your desired culture will take root and influence the behavior of the team.

To develop a culture that works, follow six rules: Ground your culture in the dilemmas you are likely to confront, dilemma-test your values, communicate your values in colorful terms, hire people who fit, let culture drive strategy, and know when to pull back from a value statement.

Start by thinking about the dilemmas your people will face.

Idea in Brief

The problem.

There’s a widespread understanding that managing corporate culture is key to business success. Yet few companies articulate their corporate culture in such a way that the words become an organizational reality that molds employee behavior as intended.

What Usually Happens

How to fix it.

Follow six rules: Ground your culture in the dilemmas you are likely to confront, dilemma-test your values, communicate your values in colorful terms, hire people who fit, let culture drive strategy, and know when to pull back from a value.

At the beginning of my career, I worked for the health-care-software specialist HBOC. One day, a woman from human resources came into the cafeteria with a roll of tape and began sticking posters on the walls. They proclaimed in royal blue the company’s values: “Transparency, Respect, Integrity, Honesty.” The next day we received wallet-sized plastic cards with the same words and were asked to memorize them so that we could incorporate them into our actions. The following year, when management was indicted on 17 counts of conspiracy and fraud, we learned what the company’s values really were.

• EM Erin Meyer is a professor at INSEAD, where she directs the executive education program Leading Across Borders and Cultures. She is the author of The Culture Map: Breaking Through the Invisible Boundaries of Global Business (PublicAffairs, 2014) and coauthor (with Reed Hastings) of No Rules Rules: Netflix and the Culture of Reinvention (Penguin, 2020). ErinMeyerINSEAD

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How Members of the Chinese Diaspora Found Their Voices

By Han Zhang

On October 13, 2022, more than two years into China’s totalizing COVID lockdowns, a man wearing a yellow helmet stood on the Sitong Bridge, an expressway overpass in downtown Beijing, and unfurled two oversized white banners. He then set fire to something that created a plume of dark, dense smoke. Below, stunned drivers and pedestrians stopped to read and to take photos of the scene. The man’s demands, inked in red, started with the quotidian—“We don’t want nucleic acid tests; we want food to eat”—and ended with the unapologetically political: “We don’t want to be lackeys; we want to be citizens.”

The protester, later identified as Peng Lifa, was arrested on the spot and never seen again. But his act of dissent hit a nerve among his countrymen. On public social-media timelines and private chat groups, Chinese Internet users started to spread the news in text, images, and codes, such as an obscure alternative-rock song titled after the bridge, that they knew no media outlet could report on. Soon, censors began scrubbing the words “Sitong Bridge” from traffic signs and online maps; Peng’s demonstration earned him the nickname Bridge Man, after the Tank Man at Tiananmen Square. On Beijing bridges big and small, a new vocation was born: bridge watchers. 

Peng’s demands for broader citizen’s rights and the relaxation of Xi Jinping’s stringent pandemic policies also struck a chord with countless Chinese people who live overseas. Beyond the reach of China’s censors and watchmen, posters featuring Peng’s slogans spread on campuses and streets all over the world. It was a resounding expression of solidarity that just a few years ago would have been unimaginable. In the decades following the Tiananmen protests and the exile of its leaders, Chinese activists abroad mostly agitated in isolated pockets. Inspired by political organizing they saw firsthand in the U.S.—around #MeToo, Black Lives Matter, and labor unions—many young Chinese students and professionals found themselves moved to act. “Public expression had been almost unthinkable” to Chinese people, even those living overseas, Clyde Yicheng Wang, a professor of politics at Washington and Lee University told me. But “the Bridge Man’s spectacular act of expression shocked people into thinking that the possibility exists.”

One such person was a software engineer in his thirties, who lives in the Boston area, whom I’ll call Seth, who had been eager to have political discussions since he moved to the U.S., a decade ago, but who struggled to find people who thought like he did. “I had suspected that people were intimidated from expressing their views because of the intensity of the crackdown—or maybe that they’ve become numb,” Seth told me. But in the days after the Bridge Man hung his banner, Seth learned, from a Chinese progressive advocacy group called Citizens Daily, that there were Chinese people in his area who were looking to start a Telegram chat to discuss current affairs. He was the third member to join the group, whose title translates to “Online and Offline Rescue Political Depressives.”

Seth and his fellow-Depressives were elated to find other Chinese people who shared values of social justice. Years of crackdowns on civil society and public speech in China had left them demoralized and fearful. One of them was an engineering Ph.D. candidate at Tufts University, whom I’ll call Chiara. “I was kind of emotionally avoiding Chinese current affairs,” she told me. The Depressives worried for their families in China, fearing that they might get sick, or find themselves trapped at home without enough food if a sudden lockdown was ordered in their area.

This anxiety was transformed into anger, Chiara said, by news of the Bridge Man protest. Another Depressive, whom I’ll call Lou, an N.G.O. worker in Boston, said, “I really couldn’t accept it—even though I had heard of stories of dark politics, I had always felt they were very far away. After this, I began to naïvely wonder, If we made enough noises overseas, perhaps Peng might be released, or become just a little safer.” The Depressives started more chat groups and one of them soon grew to more than a hundred members. Some participants started to hang posters together around Boston in solidarity with the Bridge Man. Near Boston University, Seth and some friends recreated Peng’s banner and hung it on a bridge over I-90. 

A few weeks went by; China’s quarantine rules persisted. Resistance to the lockdowns reached a fever pitch when a fire in an apartment building under lockdown killed ten residents in the city of Urumqi. The public suspected that quarantine measures had obstructed escape routes and firefighter access. (The government denied this.) Thousands of citizens across different Chinese cities took to the streets, many of them holding sheets of blank paper—a clever commentary on censorship in China—or chanting the demands for freedom that the Bridge Man had written on his banner.

They were soon joined by Chinese nationals and emigrants living abroad, who began holding solidarity rallies and vigils, some of them a thousand people strong, for the victims of the fire, often in prominent venues such as Tokyo’s Shinjuku Station—the world’s busiest train station—or the Hudson River pier outside the Chinese consulate in New York. Some twenty members of the Political Depressives group decided to organize an event in Boston. “From my experience living in America, I learned that if you want something to happen, you can’t wait for others to do it,” Chiara said. They had one week to prepare, and quickly got to work on tasks such as designing a poster and setting up a stage. Seth remembers that even a simple job like printing out display boards at Staples felt incredibly high stakes. Evoking the slang word fenhong , or “pinkie,” for people who are knee-jerk nationalists, he said, “I felt that some fenhong might confront me and yell, What are you doing?”

About five hundred people met for the Political Depressives’ gathering in a park in Boston’s Chinatown. Above a makeshift stage, the group put up Seth’s banner from the I-90 action. Some participants carried sheets of white paper or used signs that echoed Bridge Man’s demands. They mourned the loss of the fire victims, sang classic Chinese songs such as the nineteen-eighties hit “Tomorrow Will Be Better,” and shared their own experiences. (At one point, a Chinese man tried to disrupt the event and threatened to shoot a volunteer. He was arrested that night and later pleaded guilty to making a criminal threat.) Chiara thought the night felt like a group-therapy session. “So many people started to cry and to hug each other. I’ve never seen anything like that,” she said.  When Seth first looked for volunteers for the event, a Chinatown resident in his seventies got in touch. “I have waited for you for thirty years,” the elderly man said.

Since the protests began, I’ve spoken with dozens of Chinese people who live abroad and have been galvanized by the events of the last year and a half. These conversations straddled time zones. The people I spoke to, mostly in their twenties and thirties, are spread out geographically, across Europe, Asia, and North America, though many of them have similar biographies. They are highly educated professionals—scholars, office workers, and artists—whose successes in building careers and middle-class lives outside their home country were propelled, to some degree, by the lucky timing of China’s economic rise in their youth. Perhaps unlike many people of older generations, they feel decreasingly indebted to the state for this good fortune—and feel less inclined to stay silent about the state’s overreaches. “I used to think that no matter what an individual or a group does, it makes no difference,” Wang Jing, a communications professor at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, said. “But now my feeling is that, regardless of what this can achieve, I have this anger and I want to express it.”

Most of the people I spoke to, who had been raised in an environment where silence around political subjects was enforced—by Internet censors, cautious teachers, and fearful parents—described a habit of staying quiet on political issues even after they moved overseas. Lynn, a thirty-one-year-old computer programmer in New York who has recently become involved in political organizing, noticed a common disconnect, among Chinese people, between having an opinion and stating it out loud. “They are not used to using their own body to express themselves,” she said of Chinese participants at protests. Lynn performs frequently in New York’s growing feminist and queer Chinese comedy scene, and her fellow Chinese comedians observed a reticence to directly address current events in China. When she said Xi Jinping’s name in jokes, for example, she noticed a physical reaction in the audience. “Many people would cringe involuntarily,” she said. “Censorship grows in your body.”  

For many of the people I interviewed, participating in protests required breaking through mental barriers: Were they alone in their thinking? Could they trust the people around them? They often spoke of a feeling of isolation, and even an instinctive suspicion of other Chinese people they met. “When I would see a Chinese person on campus, I would subconsciously think that they must be a fenhong ,” Clyde Yicheng Wang, the professor, said. “In reality, it may not be the case, but there was no way to survey how people truly felt.”

At American universities , Chinese students often feel conscious of the presence of more nationalistic compatriots and, by extension, the state. When Lin Yao, a professor of political science at NYU Shanghai, studied at Columbia, he heard fellow-students whispering about an incident where a dozen or so Chinese students walked out of a lecture by Andrew Nathan, a preëminent scholar of China, when Nathan discussed human-rights abuses. Other scholars I interviewed recalled that classmates and friends had been asked by Chinese authorities—either before they departed China or on overseas campuses—if they’d inform on their peers while studying outside China. These requests weren’t coercive, the scholars told me, nor were they done in secret.

An art teacher in New York, whom I’ll refer to as Amelia, and who went to college in Los Angeles, told me she remembered feeling uneasy around her college’s Chinese students’ association, a well-organized umbrella group that offered many Chinese students a sense of community and was known to be closely connected to local Chinese consulates. Around these students, Amelia found herself avoiding “exposing” her views. “I find myself fleeing from this crowd and from the way I was raised—that a good woman has to be a certain way,” she said. The group’s communications, she said, felt like hongtou wenjian , “red-header documents”—the Chinese Communist Party’s term for an intra-Party communiqué. Her alienation from the group made her feel anxious and lonely, and she suspects that other Chinese students felt similarly. “I think much of it is about political leaning and identity,” she said.“We didn’t have the language to vocalize these issues yet.”

The more I spoke with people like Amelia, the more I realized that this is a coming-of-age story for a generation of Chinese people who looked outward for a better future. Many of them grew up absorbing that being a good Chinese person means submitting to one narrow set of values, behaviors, and loyalties. Years of living in two realities—the disillusioning crackdowns on civil society in China, and the rising hostility toward Asian immigrants overseas—have made them feel that they have to draw new allegiances or double down on old ones. “A lot of the more nationalistic form of overseas Chinese students organizing is less about their support for the Chinese Party state but more about an affirmation of their own Chinese identity when they feel quite alienated in a foreign country,” Yangyang Cheng, a law scholar at Yale, told me. Lou, the N.G.O. worker in Boston, recalls doing something very fenhong herself during her time in university: when a university survey of international students in the U.S. did not indicate that Hong Kong and Taiwan were part of China, many Chinese students wrote complaints to the school. Lou joined the campaign. “I can’t quite remember my thought process back then,” she said. “I wasn’t a staunch supporter of the Party, but I had a simple-minded patriotism.”

The solidarity rallies of 2022 catalyzed many overseas Chinese people’s turn toward public dissent, but a diasporic political consciousness has been growing online for several years. “Before Sitong Bridge, for a long time, people resorted to ambiguous or caustic ways to express their discontent,” Li Ying, an artist living in Italy, whose Twitter account, where he goes by the name Teacher Li, is a wildly popular source for Chinese news, told me. Even outside the bounds of China’s Great Firewall, Chinese social media users developed a distinctly ironic and coded way of commenting on the news. A common joke involved randomly invoking America while discussing news events clearly unrelated to the country, to satirize Chinese nationalists’ fixation on the U.S. A deadly flood near Beijing: “America is just too awful!” A trafficked woman found chained in a shed in Jiangsu Province: “America is just too awful!” “For an outsider, it may look like nonsense, but, among peers, we understood each other immediately,” Li said.

Li, who has 1.5 million followers on Twitter, is part of a cluster of young Chinese social-media figures who live abroad and foster political discussions with varying degrees of seriousness or jest. A Japan-based office worker who is influential on Twitter and goes by the alias Daxi Jinping bills his account as a “rehab center” for people who are traumatized by interactions with Chinese nationalists; his feed is a mix of delicious satires of nationalist comments, news about China and Japan, and photos of sunsets from downtown Tokyo. Many of these social-media personalities are ordinary white-collar workers or students who simply went online to vent about politics and accidentally found a place in the spotlight. Yet it is hard to overstate the space for unfettered discussion and sense of community they created.

Northern Square, a popular Instagram account, was launched in the spring of 2020 by a young Chinese artist who was studying in the U.S. and felt bored by his online classes. He had always admired another page called Beijing Springtime, which collected photos of the Tiananmen protests. “In these photos, I see a sense of hope and youthful vigor that are rare for today’s young people,” the artist behind Northern Square told me. The account was a low-ambition pet project, and, for more than a year, its follower number hovered around a few thousand. But then one day, in the spring of 2022, when Shanghai was in lockdown , the artist posted, on a whim, a question to his followers: “What are you thinking about during the lockdown?” Within a day, he received more than a hundred submissions, and he started to repost them. Suddenly, the account transformed into a lively real-time virtual square for people to gather and talk to one another. A number of people shared the fear that they might never see their ailing grandparents again; others spoke of bitter conflicts with family members over politics. “My mother said I was ‘anti-China,’ ” one person said. “My heart is bleeding. I really love my mom and my family but this conversation pains me so deeply.”

During the white-paper protests, Northern Square—by then a two-person operation—helped publicize poster designs and offline gatherings and poster designs. When student protesters were threatened, they turned to the account to crowdsource help, and the Square became an ad-hoc sanctuary and advisory committee, circulating messages of support and various suggestions. A quarter of the account’s followers are based in mainland China and use V.P.N.s to access Instagram, and the rest are mostly in Hong Kong, Taiwan, the U.K., and the U.S. The dialogue fostered through the account has created sympathetic moments of reunion that politicians might dream of. Over time, the artist who started the account has learned a lot about the young generation of Chinese people who are still searching for their political identities: “From the submissions, I can tell that they really resist being included in the kind of stereotypical ideas that outsiders projected onto them. They want to be seen as a group of people who yearn for democracy and freedom.”

When Seth and the Political Depressives began organizing their first rally in Boston, they initially agreed that they’d dissolve the group and return to their own lives after the event was over. But as the gathering gained traction, they discovered that they enjoyed working together, and found meaning in being able to discuss current affairs and a kind of Chinese political solidarity that’s not organized around the will of the Party-state. When I caught up with Seth in March of this year, the group was organizing a screening for a documentary called “Urumqi Road,” which is about the 2022 protests. The director, Chen Pinlin, a Shanghai-based filmmaker, has been detained and charged with “picking quarrels and provoking trouble”—a catch-all crime frequently used against activists.  

Recently, some of the Depressives have coördinated to support protests for non-Chinese causes. When Israel’s bombardment of Gaza had killed more than thirty thousand people, a few of the group went to a local march for Palestinians. “We saw many Jewish people at the march. It’s remarkable,” Seth said. “I hope we Chinese can be like them, too.” When Seth first came to the U.S., more than a decade ago, he was impressed by how all of American society seemed to turn its attention to the election campaigns. “Democracy had been a theoretical concept for me before I saw it firsthand,” he said. In 2019, Seth joined a protest in solidarity with people in Hong Kong. “I was so nervous at the time,” he recalled. But over time, his fears—like the anxiety over doing a print job at Staples—dissipated; the way he described the expansion of his own mental freedom sounded like advancing through a video game, unlocking rewards along the way. “I stopped wearing masks at gatherings for Hong Kong and Uyghurs,” he said. “I no longer feel that fenhongs are watching me.”

Many of this cohort’s online gathering places emerged by accident, but since the white-paper protests began, more have been created with the express purpose of fostering solidarity. The names of these projects alone give an idea of how the diaspora is embracing its new identity. A news account for “dignified Chinese-language cultural life” is aptly called Dasheng, which means “a loud voice”; a new zine, “Mangmang”—an archaic term that describes the unfettered growth of wild grass in a field—advertises the slogan “an independent Chinese magazine without censorship”; a labor-organizing advocacy account uses the name Dagongren, a term that has historically referred to low-wage work, to foster solidarity between manual laborers and office workers. “I noticed that many people moved their focus from reacting with intense anger to community building,” Lynn, the New York programmer, told me in April. Recently, she and a few friends founded a company dedicated to helping incubate Mandarin-language podcasts, with ambitions to “reimagine talking freely.”

The past decade has felt, to me, like an education in social change. I’ve witnessed various movements—Black Lives Matter, #MeToo, the Hong Kong protests—coming to a boil and briefly eclipsing all other political happenings. Yet often, after a while, the voices quiet down and the streets empty out—either by force, or from attrition. Some argue that nothing has changed, while others say that everything has. As the moment of the white-paper protests recedes into history, the political reality claims its place: Chinese students studying abroad have reported being followed or intimidated after protesting. Teacher Li, the one-man news outlet, knows he will never go home again; his parents have been harassed and placed under surveillance. China scholars I spoke to, who are enthusiastic about the movement, are also wary of exaggerating its reach. It’s hard to imagine any major political shift in Chinese politics in the near future.

Still, I remain persuaded by something that a professor in Hong Kong told me. “Now that we have stood together and seen each other, we know we are not alone,” she said. “It’s kind of like baptism. It may appear that after being submerged in water, one returns to secular life unchanged. But, in fact, your whole mind-set is different.” ♦

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Mediations of Body in Popular Spaces/Culture (Extended Deadline: 31st August, 2024)

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                                                                       Mediations of Body in Popular Spaces/Culture

Fraught with moral, religious, racial, sexual, and transgressive configurations, the body is a potent site for reflective practices within popular culture. The self-reflexive matrix of popular culture’s representations of human body functions as a site for materializing possibilities of varying forms of living. As a cultural sign, body features in both normative and non-normative debates on identity, selfhood, social relations, power, institutional surveillance and regulation. The practice of its representations, on the other hand, traditionally enables a culture of shared meaning-making which shapes how an individual perceives, thinks, feels, and acts amidst the production and circulation of discourses. In rethinking the traditional certainties around human body, the space of popular culture fosters a field of inquiry where heterogenous approaches open new apertures in understanding the complexity of human body.

In times marked by advancement in the fields of science, medicine, and technology, the discourses on human body’s representations within popular culture continue to explore what it means to be an embodied human being. The human body is seen to be undergoing experiments to either ‘unlock’ its latent potentiality in terms of modification and amplification, or, to show its vulnerability, messiness, leakiness, and volatility to draw attention to the existential dimension of this embodied being. The pervasiveness of body within cultural spaces pertinently teases out a range of problematics that are also mirrored in virtual and augmented reality, and extend well beyond the corporeal finitude to generate new modalities of becoming. These emerging representations of digitally mediated bodies, virtual bodies, cyborg, etc., within the cultural spaces bring a novel spin to the discursive formations around human body.

In view of the changing contours of body in twenty-first century, LLIDS invites contributions that engage with the various modalities, entanglements, and contestations of human body in conventional spaces such as literature, cinema, painting, sculpture, and exhibitions, as well as new modes of embodiment such as posthuman/transhuman bodies, social/digital media presence, body in correspondence with AI technologies, among others. LLIDS seeks scholarly contributions which address the above theme and/or go beyond them. Some suggestive thematics are listed below:

• Problematics of ideal representations of body
• Body in non-western representation
• Aesthetics of ‘beautiful’ and ‘ugly’ body
• Religion and the regulation of body
• Body art vis-à-vis tattooing, scarification, cosmetic surgery, bodybuilding
• Body in Performance arts
• E-sports and body
• Military and the discipline of body
• Legal discourse and body
• Economics and labour of body
• Pre-covid and post-covid human body
• Representation of deviant body
• Queer bodies in popular culture
• Body and caste
• Migrant bodies
• Representation of disabled bodies
• Body, brain, and AI
• Metaverse and virtual bodies

Submissions : Only complete papers will be considered for publication. The papers need to be submitted according to the guidelines of the MLA 8th edition. You are welcome to submit full length papers (3,500–10,000 words) along with a 150 words abstract and list of keywords. Please read the submission guidelines before making the submission –  http://ellids.com/author-guidelines/submission-guidelines/ . Please feel free to email any queries to –  [email protected] .

Please make all submissions via the form:  https://forms.gle/W3uJ2SknA5iGxNUN6

Submission deadline : 31st August, 2024

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