history essay citation

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• Citation Styles

What citation style to use for history

There are plenty of citation styles you can use for research papers but do you actually know which ones are used specifically in the history field? In order to ease your way into your paper, we compiled a list of the main citation styles used for history. Each style includes an explanation of its system, just like reference examples.

The Modern Language Association style is known for being the most frequently used in the humanities, which includes history. It uses an author-page citation system, which consists of in-text citations formed by the author's last name and the page number of the source. These point to a reference list at the end of the paper.

Check out these MLA style resources

🌐 Official MLA style guidelines

🗂 MLA style guide

📝 MLA citation generator

MLA style examples

An in-text citation in MLA style:

However, research introduced a new perspective on history (Walke 224) .

A bibliography entry in MLA style:

Walke, Anika. “‘To Speak for Those Who Cannot’: Masha Rol’nikaite on the Holocaust and Sexual Violence in German-Occupied Soviet Territories.” Jewish History , vol. 33, no. 1–2, 2020, pp. 215–244.

Chicago style is another form of citation used for history papers and journals. Its system offers two types of format: a notes and bibliography system, and an author-date system. The notes and bibliography system is mostly used for the humanities, whereas the author-date system is used in science and business. The latter is composed by in-text citations formed by the author's last name and date of publication that point to a reference list at the end of the paper.

Check out these Chicago style resources

🌐 Official Chicago style guidelines

🗂 Chicago style guide

📝 Chicago citation generator

Chicago style examples

An in-text citation in Chicago author-date style:

Clearly, an opposing view dominated the topic (Tuncay 2018) .

A bibliography entry in Chicago author-date style:

Lima Navarro, Pedro de, and Cristina de Amorim Machado. 2020. “An Origin of Citations: Darwin’s Collaborators and Their Contributions to the Origin of Species.” Journal of the History of Biology 53 (1): 45–79.

The Modern Humanities Research Association style is a frequently used citation format for history papers. Its system has two format options, author-date or footnotes . The author-date system consists of in-text citations with the author's last name and date of publication, whereas footnotes give an in-text superscript number and a source reference at the end of the page. Both of these formats require a reference list at the end of the paper.

Check out these MHRA style resources

🌐 Official MHRA style guidelines

🗂 MHRA style guide

📝 MHRA citation generator

MHRA style examples

An in-text citation in MHRA author-date style:

The image of women in leading positions has evolved throughout time (Loomis 2010) .

A bibliography entry in MHRA style:

Loomis, Catherine. 2010. The Death of Elizabeth I: Remembering and Reconstructing the Virgin Queen (Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan) https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230112131

The Historical Journal citation style is one of the most popular journals about history. Its system differs from other citation styles, as it requires a full bibliographical reference at the first in-text citation, and then an author-short-title in subsequent citations. It also allows the use of footnotes ; for a detailed description of its system take a look at the official HIS guidelines linked below.

Check out these HIS style resources

🌐 Official HIS style guidelines

HIS style examples

The first in-text bibliographical citation in HIS style:

As seen in journey of president Roosevelt, J. Lee Thompson, Theodore Roosevelt Abroad: Nature, Empire, and the Journey of an American President (2010) pp. 130-170 .

Second and subsequent in-text references in HIS style:

For instance, president Roosevelt, Thompson, Theodore Roosevelt , pp. 132 , showed to be an exemplary contemporary figure.

#5 History and Theory

History and Theory is an international journal devoted to the theory and philosophy of history. Its citation system consists of footnotes and in-text superscript numbers . For more details about its citation system refer to the journal's official guidelines linked below.

Check out these History and Theory style resources

🌐 Official History and Theory style guidelines

History and Theory style examples

An in-text citation in History and Theory style:

In colonial times, human skulls were a sign of conquer ¹ .

A footnote in History and Theory style:

¹ Ricardo Roque, Headhunting and Colonialism: Anthropology and the Circulation of Human Skulls in the Portuguese Empire , 1870–1930 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010).

Frequently Asked Questions about citation styles used for history

The top 2 citation styles used for history papers are MLA and Chicago styles.

The easiest way to create a reference list for history papers is by using the BibGuru citation generator . This generator creates the fastest and most accurate citations possible, which will save you time and worries. The best part is, it is completely free!

History papers may use citation styles with author-date systems, such as MHRA or Chicago. Alternatively, you can also use numeric citation styles which insert superscript numbers to indicate a source, like MHRA or History and Theory.

Some of the most prominent history journals are: The American Historical Review , The Journal of Economic History , and History and Theory , among others.

You can add footnotes to history papers as long as you use one of the following citations styles that allow the use of footnotes: History and Theory, The Historical Journal (HIS), and MHRA.

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Helpful Links

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Citing and referencing in History

Demonstrating that you have read the major writers and acknowledging their ideas is a fundamental skill of academic work.

There are two common methods of referencing in history. These are:

In-text referencing: where the Author and Year of publication are identified in the essay and a list of References which have been cited are placed at the end of the essay. Examples of this style are Monash Harvard; APA; MHRA; Chicago and MLA.

Footnote referencing: where a number is allocated to each reference which is usually listed in full at the bottom of the page or section.  A bibliography is usually added at the end of the work which includes all the works read rather than just those cited. Examples of this style are MHRA; Chicago and MLA.

Traditionally the footnote style has been preferred in the humanities as it is less disruptive to the flow of writing.

In History it is recommended that students use the Essay writing guide for citing and referencing where examples of the 2 methods are described.  For more detailed information and plenty of referencing examples refer to the relevant tab of the  Citing and Referencing library guide .

EndNote: How to keep tabs on your references

Keeping track of what you have read for the different subjects, from a variety of sources can be time-consuming.

There are bibliographic software packages available which help with these tasks.

The University supports the EndNote software package which can be downloaded and used freely by students and staff at Monash.

The programme is a sophisticated system aimed at postgraduate and research needs, however undergraduate students are welcome to use it if they wish. The Library offers classes throughout the year on EndNote which can be booked online . I f you have a group of at least 5 students i t is also possible to request a class directly from the History librarian.

Online tutorials are available to help you get started.

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Research Guides

Gould library, history research guide.

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Citations for Historians

• Carleton History Department Mechanics of Citation The Carleton History department guidelines are based on The Chicago Manual of Style, now in its 17th edition.

Chicago Quick Guide: Notes & Bibliography!

• Chicago Manual of Style: Annotated bibliography example Remember that your annotated bibliographies are not simply lists. They are creative, rhetorical devices that map out the scholarly conversation on a topic.
• How to Cite Your Sources by Research/IT Desk Last Updated Apr 9, 2024 24223 views this year

Video examples of Chicago Manual of Style

More Videos on Chicago

• Chicago Style - Books (Video)
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• Chicago Style - Websites & Social Media (Video)

Chicago citation examples

• Notes & Bibliography
• Author-Date

(N) = footnote or endnote style ; (B) = Bibliography style

Your bibliography should be alphabetized by author last name. For works that do not have an author, alphabetize by item title (omitting articles like "a" or "the"). Your bibliography should also be formatted using Hanging Indents .

Newspaper Article/Newspapers

(N) "Shipping News,"  New York Herald , December 4, 1868, Readex America's Historical Newspapers.

(B) The New York Herald, 1868-1878.

(B) The Ohio State Journal (Columbus, Ohio) April 1-20, 1900.

• See:  14.191: Basic citation format for newspaper articles
• Newspapers are more commonly cited in notes or parenthetical references than in bibliographies.
• An example from the Carleton History Department on how to cite a newspaper in a bibliography (if needed)

(N) 1. “Balkan Romani,” Endangered Languages, Alliance for Linguistic Diversity, accessed September 2, 2022, https://web.archive.org/web/20220822122125/https://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/5342.

• See  14.207: Citing web pages and websites for other options : Include a publication date or date of revision or modification if possible; else, access date
• See  14.10: Short forms for URLs for help with long, weird URLs
• You may also choose to cite to the Internet Archive instead of the live website

Images and Art

(N) 1. Michelangelo Buonarroti, The Slave , 1513-15, marble, 2.09 m., Paris, The Louvre.

(B) Buonarroti, Michelangelo. The Slave , 1513-15. Marble, 2.09 m. Paris, The Louvre.

• See:  14.235: Citing paintings, photographs, and sculpture
• See: Best practices for Creative Commons attribution

If citing images found in published works or online collections, cite them similarly to book chapters, articles, or web pages within website, with the artist in the author position and the image title in the chapter title, article title, or webpage title position.

Data Sets & DH Projects

(N) 1. Creator,  Title  (Place: Publisher, Year), link.

(B) Creator. Title.  Place: Publisher, Year. link.

(N) 1. The World Bank. Washington Development Indicators . (Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 2012). http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators.

(B) The World Bank. World Development Indicators . Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 2012. http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators.

• See:  Example of how to cite different parts of a digital humanities project

Primary Sources in a Republished Source

When possible, always find and cite the original. If this is absolutely impossible, you may need to cite a primary source that is republished in a secondary source.

Follow whatever citation rules apply to your specific item type; for instance, because this example is a newspaper article, there's only a short bibliography entry. If this were a different item type, the bibliography entry might look different. 

(N) 1. [Complete citation for the older/original item; see Archival Citations  or above for help], quoted in [Complete citation for newer/secondary source; see above for help], page #, URL/doi.

(B) [Complete citation for the older/original item; see Archival Citations or above for help]. Quoted in [Complete citation for newer/secondary source; see above for help]. URL/doi. 

(N) 1. Itthi, "Love Problems of the Third Sex -- Solved by Go Pakhnam" [in Thai], Plaek , July 7, 1976, quoted in Peter A. Jackson, First Queer Voices from Thailand: Uncle Go’s Advice Columns for Gays, Lesbians and Kathoeys (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2016), 196-197,  https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1bj4sqf .

(B) Plaek . July 7, 1976. Quoted in Peter A. Jackson. First Queer Voices from Thailand: Uncle Go’s Advice Columns for Gays, Lesbians and Kathoeys. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2016. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1bj4sqf .

• See:  14.260: Citations taken from secondary sources
• See: Citing Primary Sources Published in Edited Collections  (Trent University)

If citing images or art that stand alone:

Buonarroti, Michelangelo. 1513-15. The Slav e. Marble, 2.09 m. Paris, The Louvre.

Creator. Year. Title . Place: Publisher. link

The World Bank. 2012. World Development Indicators . Washington, D.C.: The World Bank. http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators.

Lastname, Firstname. Year.  Title . Performed by Firstname Lastname. Place: Studio. Format.

Wong, John. 1999. Cool People at the Libe. Directed by Cat Toff. Northfield: Gould Libe. DVD.

Archival material & FAQ

Elements to include ( rule ), footnotes: format ( rule ,  examples ), bibliography: format ( rule & examples ), frequently asked difficult questions.

• General Rules for Citing Archival Material (14.221: Manuscript Collections)
• See for more info: Citing Records in the National Archives of the United States Need more examples or helpful information? The Chicago Manual of Style also recommends looking at this "pamphlet" produced by the National Archives on citing archival material.
• Citing republished/bound primary sources (14.260: Citations taken from secondary sources) When possible, always find and cite the original. If this is absolutely impossible, you may need to cite a primary source that is republished in a secondary source.
• Include a URL, but don't do full "website" format (14.7: Uniform resource locators (URLs)) If it's a letter that was digitized and put online, cite it as a letter with a URL at the end; don't cite it like a website just because it's online. Don't include a URL for a finding aid; just for a digitized version of the item itself.
• How to spell an author's name (14.73: Form of author’s name)
• On anonymous works (14.79: No listed author (anonymous works))
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Senior Essay in History: Citing Your Sources

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Chicago Manual of Style

Documenting the sources you use in your senior essay is a key part of the research and writing process. Complete and accurate citations to the books, journal articles, primary sources, and other items you use will allow readers to verify your sources and explore them further if they'd like to learn more about the issues you've raised.

In the field of history, the standard citation style is the Chicago Style, and you will want to consult it to find the proper format for citing sources in your footnotes as well as at the end of your paper in your bibliography. Here are the main links for referring to the Chicago Manual of Style:

• Chicago Manual of Style Online (17th ed.)
• Chicago-Style Citation Quick Guide

Also there is Kate L. Turabian's encapsulation of the Chicago Style :   A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations: Chicago Style for Students and Researchers .

In addition, the Purdue OWL (Online Writing Lab) offers a helpful overview of the Chicago Manual of Style.

Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS)

The key chapter to consult in the CMOS is Chapter 14, Notes and Bibliography, where you will find guidance on citing sources both in your footnotes and in your bibliography. Many examples of citations are provided throughout the chapter, but keep in mind that sometimes you may be citing a source that doesn't exactly fit within the chapter's models. In these cases, the main thing is to maintain a clear and consistent style, and to reach out to a librarian or your faculty advisor if you have any questions.

The guidance you'll find in Ch. 14 will offer direction on such general matters as:

• Notes and bibliography--an overview (14.19)
• Shortened Citations (starting at 14.29)
• Electronic resource identifiers (14.6)
• Short forms for URLs  (14.10)
• Library and other bibliographic databases (14.11)
• Access dates (14.12)
• Basic citation format for newspaper articles (14.191)
• * Click here to go to our guidelines for citing archival materials based on the Chicago Manual of Style

Citation Management Tools

You may already have a software program or a system for keeping track of your sources, but, if not, you will want to think about what way of organizing your research will work best for you this coming year. The Yale University Library has licenses to certain citation management tools, and there are also free tools on the web for managing your citations. Probably the two most useful tools to consider are:

• This is a resource licensed by the Yale Library; you will need to use your Yale e-mail address to create an account.
• This is an excellent tool that's used by many historians. The same organization that created it also makes available a research photo management tool - Tropy .

For more information and an overview of several of the resources that are available, see our citation management guide .

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Library Research Guide for History

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Citation and writing guidance.

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Citation tools offer a better way to collect, store, and manage reference information, research notes, and documents. They work with your word processor to manage in-text citations and to build bibliographies in nearly any format. Find more information on the Citation Tools FAQ .

Need help with Zotero or other citation tools? Email Anna Assogba: [email protected] or Emily Bell [email protected] .

Chicago Style Guides

Chicago Manual of Style Online (17th ed.) Chicago Manual of Style Online (16th ed.) HOLLIS Record for print version 

Ohio State University Libraries’ Chicago Manual of Style form guide contains samples of scientific and humanities styles and electronic resource citation.

This Bowdoin College Library's Chicago-Style Citations guide helps cite Facebook, Twitter, e-mails and more.

General Citation Guidance

Evidence explained: citing history sources from artifacts to cyberspace , by Elizabeth Shown Mills. Baltimore, MD: Genealogical Pub. Co., 2007, 885 p. Available online via Internet Archive .

Harvard Guide to Using Sources is a guide produced by the Expository Writing Program.

University of Wisconsin Writing Center Writer’s Handbook offers links to examples of notes for articles, books, interviews, performances, secondary sources, unpublished material, with first, second and subsequent references. Also provides a link to information on bibliographies and sample entries.

The Columbia guide to online style   (online access via Internet Archive) by Janice R. Walker. New York: Columbia University Press, 2006.

History Writing Guides

A Brief Guide to Writing the History Paper - produced by the Harvard College Writing Center

A Handbook for Senior Thesis Writers in History - produced by the Department of History, Harvard University

The Writing Center  can help Harvard undergraduates with any aspect of your writing. From structuring your paper to forming an argument, they can help you do it all.

The Modern Researcher   by Jacques Barzun is a handbook for academic writing and research with a focus on history. Online access via Internet Archive

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History: APA Style

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APA Citation Style

What is the apa citation style.

" APA Style® originated in 1929, when a group of psychologists, anthropologists, and business managers convened and sought to establish a simple set of procedures, or style rules, that would codify the many components of scientific writing to increase the ease of reading comprehension." (APA Style | "What is APA Style®?")

Who uses the APA citation style?

"APA (American Psychological Association) style is most commonly used to cite sources within the social sciences." (Purdue OWL | "APA Style Introduction") APA is also commonly used in education and the sciences (some of which actually have their own specific citation styles). That means, unless your instructor says otherwise, that if you're writing a research paper for your Biology, Business, Chemistry, Criminal Justice, Education, History, Medical Laboratory Science, Psychology, or Sociology classes, then you should probably be citing your sources according to the APA citation style.

How do I use the APA citation style?

• The title page should contain the title of the paper, the author's name, and the institutional affiliation. Include the page header by inserting page numbers flush right at the top of the page and then typing the title flush left of the page numbers.
• Type your title in upper and lowercase letters centered in the upper half of the page.
• Beneath the title, type the author's name: first name, middle initial(s), and last name.
• Beneath the author's name, type the institutional affiliation, which should indicate the location where the author(s) conducted the research.
• The introduction presents the problem that the paper addresses. It should start on the same page as the Literature Review.
• Start on a new page with the title References centered; do not underline or italicize. All citations in the paper should have a reference on this page.
• Introduction
• Appendices (Purdue OWL | "Types of APA Papers")

How do I cite a resource using the APA citation style?

• Kessler (2003) found that among epidemiological samples . . .
• In 2003, Kessler's study of epidemiological samples found . . .
• Several studies (Miller, 1999; Shafranske & Mahoney, 1998) . . .

How do I properly format my References page?

According to APA citation style, you must have a References page at the end of your research paper. All entries on the References page must correspond to the resources that were cited in the main text of your paper. Entries are listed alphabetically by the author's last name (or the editor's or translator's name) or the title (ignoring initial articles), and the hanging indent style is used. For example:

Berndt, T. J. (2002). Friendship quality and social development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11 , 7-10.

Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10th ed.). (1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.

Wegener, D. T., & Petty, R. E. (1994). Mood management across affective states: The hedonic contingency hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66 , 1034-1048.

(Purdue OWL | "Reference List: Author/Authors")

• APA Template

Feel free to use the following document as a template for properly formatting your paper in APA, but please double-check with your instructor to make sure that you're following his/her specific directions!

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History Resource Guide: APA-7 Citation Style

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Welcome to the APA-7 Citation Resource

Paper Setup     References List     In-Text Citations

APA Style Resources

The following resources contain examples and/or information to assist in preparing a research paper in APA Citation Style.

OWL Citation Help

• Excelsior OWL Valuable information and resources to help you create your citations.

Video Tutorials

• APA 7 Video Tutorials Check out these step-by-step videos to help you set up your paper, create your reference list, and in-text citations.
• APA Tutorials and Webinars Check out these videos and webinars from the APA website to help you create your APA 7 citations.

Paper Set-up

• APA Title Page Resource Guide This source will give you all the information you need to create the Title Page for your APA style paper.
• Paper Set-up Checklist Use this checklist to make sure you have everything you need to set up your APA paper.
• Paper Set-up Checklist Printout A printout version of the APA paper checklist.
• Citing Websites in APA 7 Use this handout to help you create citations for websites.
• APA Style Formatting and Citing from D2L Use this document to see a title page example, create the proper headings in your paper, and cite sources from your class D2L page.
• APA "And the Band Played On" Scene Log

The APA Citation Style

This resource guide will focus on the 7th edition of the APA publication style developed by the American Psychological Association, which is used by the Social Sciences and other curricular areas.

Take a look at the links on the left for examples of APA 7 in-text citations, reference pages, and some useful sites and tutorials. 

Resources from APA

• APA Inclusive Language Guide View and download the updated APA guidelines for inclusive language
• APA Citation Guide Use this resource to break down the parts of a reference page citation for three commonly cited formats: journal article, book, and chapter in an edited book.
• Sample Paper This example paper will give you a visual of what your finished paper will look like, from title page to references. It also includes notes to identify key parts of your paper.
• Student Paper Sample Download this word document to see what a finished APA style paper looks like.

Setting up an APA Paper

Before you begin writing your research paper, it is important to have it correctly formatted following APA guidelines. This includes setting up a title page, correcting line spacing, text font, and margins in a paper.

To set up your paper for APA formatting you will complete the following: 

• Make sure the margins in your paper are set to 1 inch
• Use one of the approved APA fonts: 11-point Calibri, 11-point Arial, 10-point Lucida Sans Unicode, 12-point Times New Roman, or 11-point Georgia. 
• Set the spacing in your paper to Double. 
• Create a title page. 

To create a title page for your paper, or to see a visual of any of the above formatting guidelines, check out the library's APA 7 video tutorials.  

The   Document Formatting guides   prepared by HCC Learning Support Center staff are a great tool to help you step-by-step through the process of setting up your document.  We recommend you use these guidelines to set up your paper before you begin writing. 

Document Formatting

• Formatting in Google Docs
• Formatting in MS Word Browser
• Formatting in MS Word on MAC
• Formatting in MS Word on PC

Citations are tricky, and there are lots of questions you may have when creating your citations. This guide covers the basics of APA, but for more detailed questions about specific citations, make sure to check out the resources along the left. The Excelsior OWL citation guide is especially helpful for creating citations for different sources. 

Image: Vecteezy

The APA References list

Once you have completed your research and have gathered the information you would like to use to write your paper, your next step should be to create the list of the resources you will use in your paper. This list is called a Reference List  and includes any source (publication, video, lecture, etc.) that you are using information from in your paper. It is very important that you cite sources in your paper because you want to show where you are getting your information from and avoid Plagiarism! 

General formatting tips when creating your references page: 

• The references page will begin on a separate page at the end of your research paper. 
• Each citation will be in alphabetical order based on the authors' last names. If there are not authors, you will alphabetize by the source's title. 
• Double-space all entries. 
• Include a hanging-indent with each citation. To learn how to create a hanging indent, watch the second part of the library's APA Citation Video Tutorials. 
• Include the word References at the top of the page, centered on the page and in bold text. 

For help with creating citations, or how to set up your references page, watch the library's APA Citations Video Tutorials! 

Examples of Common Citations

Use the examples shown below to help you format correct citations for the most popular sources. 

Scholarly article from a database:

Elements : Author's last name, Author's first and middle initials. (Date). Title of article.  Title of Journal, Volume number (issue number, if any), Page numbers. 

Mershon, D.H. (1998, November). Star trek on the brain: Alien minds, human minds.  American Scientist, 86 (6), 585. 

Elements : Author's last name, Author's first and middle initials. (Date published).  Title of webpage . Website Name. URL. 

Price, D. (2018, March 23).  Laziness does not exist . Medium. https://humanparts.medium.com/laziness-does-not-exist-3af27e312d01 

Book by multiple authors (less than 20): 

Elements : Author's last name, Author's first and middle initials. (Year of Publication).  Title of boo k. Publisher. 

Rivano, N. S., Hoson, A., & Stallings, B. (2001).  Regional integration and economic development . Palgrave.

Social Media Post (Instagram): 

Elements : Author's last name, Author's first and middle initials. [@username]. (Year, Month, Day published).  Content of the post up to the first 20 words [description of type of post]. Site name. URL. 

Sulic, L. [@lukasulicworld]. (2019, December 31).  We wish you a happy new year!  [Photograph]. Instagram. https://www.instagram.com/p/B6vTyaZHNU9/?igshid=141g9y12b4gfn 

For more examples of how to cite specific formats, or more specific help with citations, visit the Excelsior Online Writing Lab for detailed descriptions! 

In-Text Citations

In-text citations are the second way you will cite your sources in a research paper. Unlike the citations found in the References page, in-text citations are shorter and appear in the body of the text. Any time you use information from a source (whether you paraphrase it or use a direct quotation), you must include an in-text citation. So you will have multiple in-text citations for one source. 

APA in-text citations will appear in parentheses within the paper you are writing, and will appear at the end of the sentence where the source is being cited. You will include only the author's last name, followed by the date of publication. If a source has two authors, list both names separated by an ampersand (&). If there are more than two authors, list only the first author's last name followed by the phrase 'et al'. 

In-text citation examples: 

Source with three or more authors:.

The concept of social class is rapidly becoming obsolete (Calvert et al., 1987). 

Source with one author, using a signal phrase (a signal phrase uses part of the citation in the body of the text):

Calvert (1982) argued that it is impossible to measure social class. 

Source with two authors:

Two techniques that have been associated with reduced stress and increased relaxation in psychotherapy contexts are guided imagery and progressive muscle relaxation (McGuigan & Lehrer, 2007). 

For more examples of creating in-text citations, check out the library's video tutorials or the Excelsior OWL citation page for help! Or explore the resources on this guide for more information! 

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United States History

Citing your sources.

• Articles and Journals
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• Primary Sources
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Footnote style-Chicago Manual of Style

Apa (american psychological association) style, chicago style, harvard style, mla (modern language association) style, nlm (national library of medicine style), general citation guides.

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Proper citation is an essential aspect of scholarship. Citing properly allows your reader or audience to locate the materials you have used. Most importantly, citations give credit to the authors of quoted or consulted information. Failure to acknowledge sources of information properly may constitute plagiarism.  For an explicit definition of plagiarism, see the  Boston University Academic Conduct Code .

For detailed instructions on how to cite within the text of your paper, please consult a style manual listed in this guide. Please also note: some of the resources listed do not cover every possibility you might encounter when trying to cite your sources. For this reason, it is suggested that you consult a style manual to create your bibliography.

Finally, please also see our separate citation guides  for Business students  or  for Science students .

Book .  The first time you cite a book, give the author's full name, the full title of the  book as it appears on the title page, the place of publication, the publisher's name, the date of publication, and page from which your material has been drawn.  Note that the publication data is enclosed in parentheses.  For example:

• 1.  Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., Robert Kennedy and His Times (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1978), 231.

Multivolume Works .  When all the volumes in a multivolume work have the same title, a reference to pages within a single volume is given in the following manner.  (Note that the volume number is given in Arabic numerals and that the volume and page numbers are separated by a colon.)  For example:

• 2.  James Schouler, History of the United States of America, under the Constitution (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1904), 4:121.

When each volume in a multivolume work has a different title, a reference to pages within a single volume is given as follows:

• 3.  Forrest C. Pogue, George C. Marshall, vol. 4, Statesman , 1945-1959 (New York: Viking, 1987), 31.

Article in a Scholarly Journal .  For the first citation of an article, give the author's full name, the full title, and the name, volume number, month and year, and page number of the journal or quarterly.  For example:

• 4.  Edwin S. Gaustad, “The Theological Effects of the Great Awakening in New England,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review , 40 (March 1954), 690.

Subsequent Citation .   Subsequent citations of the same book or article should give only the author's last name and an abbreviated (short) title.  For example:

• 5.  Schlesinger, Robert Kennedy, 295.
• 6.  Gaustad, “Theological Effects of the Great Awakening,” 693-695.

Use of the Abbreviation “Ibid.”   If a footnote refers to the same source that was cited in the immediately preceding footnote, the abbreviation ibid. (for ibidem , which means “in the same place") may take the place of the author’s name, title of the work, and as much of the succeeding material as is identical.  For example:

• 7.  Ibid., 699.

Collected Works .  In citing printed collected works such as diaries or letters, the author’s name may be omitted if it is included in the title.  The name of the editor follows the title, preceded by a comma and the abbreviation “ed.,” which stands for “edited by.” For example:

• 8.  An Englishman in America, 1785, Being the Diary of Joseph Hudfield , ed. Douglas S. Robertson (Toronto: Hunter-Rose, 1933), 23.

Books and journal articles: Bibliography

• Campbell, Mildred, The English Yeoman under Elizabeth and the Early Stuarts . New Haven: Yale University Press, 1942.
• Gaustad, Edwin S. "The Theological Effects of the Great Awakening in New England," Mississippi Valley Historical Review , 40 (March 1954), 681-706.
• Schouler, James. History of the United States of America, under the Constitution . 6 vols. Rev. ed. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1904.
• Hudfield, Joseph. An Englishman in America, 1785, Being the Diary of Joseph Hudfield. Edited by Douglas S. Robertson. Toronto: Hunter-Rose, 1933.
• Rigby, David Joseph. “The Combined Chiefs of Staff and Anglo-American Strategic Coordination in World War II.” Ph.D. dissertation, Brandeis University, 1996.

• APA Formatting and Style Guide at Purdue OWL

• Chicago Style guide at Purdue OWL

There is no official guide to Harvard Style. If you Google “Harvard Style Guide” you will find many websites that list examples. One of the best guides is from  Monash University . 

• MLA Formatting and Style Guide at Purdue OWL

The official style manual for the National Library of Medicine (NLM), and suggested when citing documents from the associated databases MedLine and PubMed. The online edition supercedes the print edition as the most up to date.

• Purdue OWL (Online Writing Lab)

Acknowledgement

This footnote and bibliography citation section were adapted from the Princeton University Library history research guide with their kind permission.

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History: referencing and style guide.

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Referencing in your assignments

Whether working on a thesis, dissertation or essay, correct referencing is vital to ensure that you credit all your sources. The Faculty of History offers guidelines on how to approach this and the reference management software listed below can assist.  Whichever style you adopt, remember to be consistent. 

Specific advice for History Students

Students should refer to the History Faculty Style Guide (available on Moodle)

An introduction to referencing and is given to first year students in the library's introductory lecture. Further guidance is available from library staff.

Reference Management Software

You may find reference management software useful for creating bibliographies.  There are several free options available, guidelines can be found below from the University Library website:

The website Cite Them Right may also be helpful.

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• Referencing

How to reference historical sources

Referencing systems are the best way to avoid plagiarism.

Plagiarism is the act of presenting another person's words, research, or ideas as if they were your own. Any part of your work that is plagiarised cannot contribute to your mark.

Therefore, the more of your essay that is plagiarised, the harder it is for you to get good marks for your work.

There is nothing wrong with using the ideas of other writers, but it is necessary to show when you have done so through an academic referencing system.

Different schools used different systems of referencing. This guide uses the APA Referencing System. Take the time to learn the requirements of the system.

The more you practice, the more it will become ‘second nature’ to you.

There are three ways you can reference sources:

Whenever you use a direct or indirect quote in a sentence, you need to indicate what source the information came from. You do this with in-text referencing.

Many primary sources are not in written form and trying to describe them in an essay is difficult. This can often occur when you are referring to a particular building or artefact. In these cases, providing an image of the source is helpful for the reader.

A list of all cited source materials, known as a bibliography , must be included at the end of your essay. A History bibliography is divided into two sections: primary sources and secondary sources . Each of these sections need to be in alphabetical order .

What do you need help with?

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Hamilton College, "Writing a Good History Paper" A nice overview; the discussion of pitfalls in editing/revision is excellent.

Prof. William Cronon on Historical Writing Prof. William Cronon's excellent guide to historical writing; part of an even larger guide to doing historical research.

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The Mechanics of Citation

The following guidelines are loosely based on The Chicago Manual of Style , now in its 17th edition. Any student thinking of going to graduate school in history or any other learned discipline should acquire and use the most recent version of this basic reference work.

A. Citing sources in footnotes B. Quotations C. Bibliographical entries D. Interviews E. How to Cite Internet Sources F. Writing for the Web

A. Citing Sources in Footnotes

Footnote or endnote.

Word processing programs nowadays let you choose footnotes (which appear at the bottom of each page of text) or endnotes (which appear at the end of the paper, after the text). In this guide we will speak of footnotes, but endnotes are equally acceptable.

When to footnote?

A reference showing the source of your information must accompany each important statement of fact, each quotation, each citation of statistics, and every conclusion borrowed from another writer — unless the fact or quotation is so well known as to be universally recognized or accepted. Thus you need not footnote a statement that the American Civil War began in 1861 or that the headwaters of the Mississippi River lie in Minnesota; and while you may wish to quote the exact wording of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, you need not footnote the source as long as you mention that phrase “Fourteenth Amendment” in your text.

When the matter in any paragraph comes from several sources , one footnote may contain all these references. To reduce clutter, it is usually a good idea to collect all the references for the statements in a paragraph into a single footnote at the end of a paragraph.

Why do we use footnotes?

Basically, historians footnote their sources for two reasons. First, footnotes are a way to acknowledge the help we have received from others who have worked on this subject before we began on it. No historian ever works in isolation; scholarly inquiry is an endeavor carried on within a community of historians. This community extends through time — we often learn from the works of writers long dead.

Second, we footnote our sources as a courtesy to our readers. A reader may become interested in an idea you are presenting or in some information you discuss. The reader may wish to learn more about this matter, and your footnotes get him or her started on the investigation.

The proper way to cite books and articles

Single-space your footnotes and number them consecutively; start over with number 1 in a new chapter. Footnotes may appear at the bottom of the page or at the end of your essay on a separate page or pages. A good word processing program such as Microsoft Word can easily format your manuscript either way.

Note the form of the following footnote reference:

1 Adeeb Khalid, Central Asia: A New History from the Imperial Conquests to the Present , (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2021), 261.

The first footnote citation of a work should supply the full name of the author with given name appearing before surname, the exact title as found on the title page (unless it is excessively long), the edition (if later than the first), the city of publication (the name of the publisher is optional), the date of publication, and the pertinent page reference. The title should be underlined or italicized. The citation is a single expression that ends with a period.

Subsequent citations of the same work should be shortened so as to give merely the author’s surname and the key word (or words) of the title:

2 Khalid, Central Asia , 206-08.

The use of ibid . (“in the same place”), op. cit . (“in the work cited”), and other Latin terms is falling out of favor and we no longer recommend their use.

Articles in Journals

Note the form of the following reference:

3 Meredith L. McCoy, “Without Destroying Ourselves: A Century of Native Intellectual Activism for Higher Education,” Journal of the Native American and Indigenous Studies Association 10, no. 2 (2023): 128–29.

This citation follows the same general pattern as the earlier citation for a book: author’s full name, title of the article (and note that article titles are placed in quotation marks), title of the journal (underlined or italicized, as with a book title), the volume number, year (month or season is optional), and pages. Again, the entire citation is a single expression that ends with a period.

A subsequent citation:

4 McCoy, “Without Destroying Ourselves,” 128.

Here the form is a hybrid of the last two:

5 Serena R. Zabin, “Intimate Ties and the Boston Massacre,” in Women in the American Revolution: Gender, Politics, and the Domestic World , ed. Barbara B. Oberg (University of Virginia Press, 2019), 192-210.

6 Zabin, “Intimate Ties and the Boston Massacre,” 193-204.

Two or more references in a single footnote

In a footnote mentioning two or more authorities, the various items should be connected by semicolons:

7 Rebecca Brückmann, Massive Resistance and Southern Womanhood: White Women, Class, and Segregation , Politics and Culture in the Twentieth-Century South (Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 2021); Antony Adler, “Deep Horizons: Canada’s Underwater Habitat Program and Vertical Dimensions of Marine Sovereignty,” Centaurus 62, no. 4 (2020): 763–82.

Page Citations

Wherever possible, give exact page citations. Occasionally, however, you may wish to indicate generally that your material comes from a particular page and the pages following. Here the abbreviation ff. (not underlined or italicized) should be employed:

8 Khalid, Central Asia , 32ff.

If you wish to indicate that the material is derived from scattered parts of a work, the Latin expression passim (“here and there”) is convenient though not widely used any longer:

9 Khalid, Central Asia , chapters 4-6, passim .

Note: The conventions discussed above are generally employed in history books and journals. The department strongly recommends that you follow these conventions for research papers including comps papers. Historians occasionally follow the conventions of other disciplines in citing sources; if an instructor in a particular history course asks you to use a different set of rules, you should follow his or her instructions.

B. Quotations

When to quote.

There are two main situations when a quotation is appropriate: when you intend to discuss the actual wording of a passage (for example, a section of Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address), or when the original writer states an idea much more memorably than you ever could. But there is no need to quote extensively from books and articles by historians. Instead, paraphrase — put the idea in your own words, footnoting the source.

When you quote, remember that all quotations should be plainly so indicated and should be made with scrupulous accuracy. There are two ways to tell your reader that you are quoting another writer. The first is to put the statement inside quotation marks; the second is to format the quoted material as a block quotation:

But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate — we can not consecrate — we can not hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be here dedicated to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us — that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion — that we here highly resolve that these honored dead shall not have died in vain — that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom — and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.

A block quotation is appropriate only when the quoted material exceeds about sixty words (say five lines). With a block quotation, you don’t use quotation marks; instead, you signal that you are quoting by indenting the passage on both right and left sides and by single-spacing it. (In books and journals you will generally find that block quotations are printed in a smaller typeface too.) Of course you should footnote the quotation.

You may omit words and phrases within a quoted passage provided you don’t distort the sense of the passage. Indicate omissions by three periods or omission marks , separated by spaces, thus . . . ; when the final words of a sentence are omitted, four omission marks are used instead of three. Editorial comment within a quotation should be enclosed in brackets, not parentheses. For example: “For each said district there shall be appointed by the President [of the United States] a provost-marshal, . . . who shall be under the direction and subject of the orders of a provost-marshal-general, . . . whose office shall be at the seat of government. . . .”

Citing Quotations

In the case of quotations, you should always cite the actual work you consulted. If a passage is copied not from the original source but as quoted by some other person, the footnote should follow this form:

10 Letter from Francis Lieber, Columbia, S.C., to Dorothea L. Dix, 5 November 1846, quoted by Francis Tiffany, Life of Dorothea Lynde Dix (Boston, MA: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1890), 149.

C. Bibliographic Entries

A formal bibliography of all the essential materials you have used comes at the very end of the paper. List works in alphabetical order by author’s last name. If you have quite a number of works (ten or more, perhaps), list them in separate sections for “Primary Sources” and “Secondary Works.” If the number of titles is quite large, you might wish to subdivide the citations further under these main headings: “Manuscripts,” “Pamphlets,” “Public Documents,” “Newspapers and Periodicals,” “Interviews,” etc. Under each subheading, arrange the items alphabetically by author’s last name. Note the form of citation in the following:

Adler, Antony. “Deep Horizons: Canada’s Underwater Habitat Program and Vertical Dimensions of Marine Sovereignty.” Centaurus 62, no. 4 (2020): 763–82. https://doi.org/10.1111/1600-0498.12287 .

Brückmann, Rebecca. Massive Resistance and Southern Womanhood: White Women, Class, and Segregation . Politics and Culture in the Twentieth-Century South. Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 2021.

Khalid, Adeeb. “Islam in Central Asia 30 Years after Independence: Debates, Controversies and the Critique of a Critique.” Central Asian Survey 40, no. 4 (2021): 539–54. https://doi.org/10.1080/02634937.2021.1923458 .

McCoy, Meredith L. “Without Destroying Ourselves: A Century of Native Intellectual Activism for Higher Education.” Journal of the Native American and Indigenous Studies Association 10, no. 2 (2023): 128–29. https://doi.org/10.1353/nai.2023.a904195 .

McCoy, Meredith L., and Jeffrey D. Burnette. “An Exploratory Analysis of Elementary and Secondary Education Funding Levels for American Indians and Alaska Natives from 1980 to 2017.” Journal of Education Finance 48, no. 2 (2022): 138–65.

Zabin, Serena R. “Intimate Ties and the Boston Massacre.” In Women in the American Revolution: Gender, Politics, and the Domestic World , 192–210. University of Virginia Press, 2019. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvfc56hw.14 .

Unlike the practice in footnotes, last names should appear first. (If the work is anonymous, the first important word of the title determines its place in the alphabetical list.) A bibliographical reference is not a single expression like a footnote; instead, periods or full stops separate author’s name from title and title from publishing information.

The New York Herald , 1868-1878.

The Ohio State Journal (Columbus, Ohio) April 1-20, 1900.

Public Documents

“Certain Illegal Tonnage Duties.” House Report , 48 Cong., 2 Sess., no. 457 (March 10, 1880), 1-16.

Malloy, William M. (comp.). Treaties, Conventions, International Acts, Protocols and Agreements Between the United States of America and Other Powers, 1776-1909 . 2 vols.: Washington: U.S. Gov’t Printing Office, 1910-1938.

[In the above citation, “comp.” stands for “compiler.”]

Manuscripts

References to unprinted material obviously can follow no rigid form, but in every case should include the name of the author (when ascertainable), the number of volumes if more than one, the inclusive dates, and the place of deposit. Do not underline the titles of manuscripts and manuscript collections. Example:

Boston Committee of Correspondence. Minutes of the Committee of Correspondence, November, 1772-December, 1774. 13 vols. mostly in the handwriting of William Cooper. George Bancroft Collection, New York Public Library.

D. Interviews

Furman, Seymour. Telephone interview with author, January 12, 1992.

Jackson, Henry M. Interview, February 5, 1968. Oral History Collection, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.

Zoll, Paul M. Interview with author, February 5, 1990, Boston, Mass.

E. How to Cite Internet Sources

Humanities style.

To cite online works, give the author’s name, last name first (if known); the full title of the work, in quotation marks; the title of the complete work (if applicable), in italics; any version or file numbers; and the date of the document or last revision (if available). Next, list the protocol (e.g., “http”) and the full URL, followed by the date of access in parentheses.

Amy Hollywood, “Spiritual but Not Religious: The Vital Interplay between Submission and Freedom,” Harvard Divinity Bulletin , Winter/Spring 2010, https://bulletin.hds.harvard.edu/articles/winterspring2010/spiritual-not-religious. (Accessed April 10, 2019)

F. Writing for the Web

Carleton’s Web Services Group offers tips on writing for online readers .

History: Writing Your History Paper

• Books and background information
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Writing manuals and guides for history papers

• University of Ottawa Department of History: History Essay Guide The authoritative guide to writing your history paper from the department itself. Contains a citation guide as well.
• A Brief Guide to Writing the History Paper (Harvard University) Explains how to understand your assignments and develop your arguments.Provides suggestions for sources and how to use them.
• A Short Guide to Writing History Essays (University of Calgary) Covers the pre-writing process, the writing, the various components of the paper, and referencing.
• Writing About History (University of Toronto_ A helpful guide that provides information on how to interpret primary and secondary sources. It also offers advice on historical argumentation and writing.
• Citing archival material in Library and Archives Canada (LAC) If you use Library and Archives Canada (LAC) material in your research, you must include information about this material in your work using citations and credit lines. The information you give depends on the type of material.

Historical Thinking and Historical Literacy

To think historically, students need to be able to:

Establish  historical significance

Use  primary source evidence

Identify  continuity and change

Analyze  cause and consequence

Take  historical perspectives , and

Understand the  ethical dimension  of historical interpretations. View the  Source  for more information.

Chicago Manual of Style online

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20 When to use Citations and Quotations

Basic rules for both:.

A good historical essay keeps the support for its argument transparent and its readers engaged. These two priorities—allowing readers to follow the evidence and judge it for themselves, while reminding them why they should care, as the story involves real people and their thoughts—can help students decide when they must use a citation and/or when they should use a quote from their sources, whether primary or secondary.

When to include a footnote (or endnote):

In terms of citations (footnotes or endnotes, depending on your professor’s instructions or your preference in the absence of instructions, as they are the same), the general rule is that you need to help your readers check your evidence to see if your evidence supports your thesis, should they choose to so. However, there are some specific occasions when you must use a footnote/endnote:

• Direct quotes from a primary or secondary source
• P araphrased information from either a primary or secondary source. Even if you are changing the words, you are still responsible for showing where you got your information. Mature scholars name the source (or, more likely, sources) that laid the groundwork for their own analysis. Doing so doesn’t make you seem unknowledgeable, but rather helps your readers understand how you are building knowledge.
• Facts that are not well known . You do not have to cite a source for noting when the US joined World War I, or for the route that Lewis and Clark took—as those are knowable facts from any number of sources. But if you cite specific conversations held between cabinet officials prior to the War, or detail the Native groups met at each bend in the river—material another scholar found by research primary sources—you must cite that scholar. Show your readers where you found new, or not widely known information.
• Another scholar’s controversial opinion . If you refer to a claim about the past that isn’t widely accepted—that is, not concerning when the Civil War began, but rather which politicians were to blame for its outbreak—you need to cite where you got that opinion. (Of course, you do not need to provide citations for your own analysis, controversial or otherwise.)
• Statistics – these are like lesser-known facts, given that statistics can vary depending upon who compiled them. For this reason, you need to cite where you found your numerical facts and figures.

Two other footnote/endnote rules:

• “Talking” or annotated notes: If it’s helpful for readers to understand additional information that’s not so critical that it belongs in the text, you may provide an explanatory foot/end note with information beyond the source citation. Beware though—some editors and instructors don’t approve, as they believe that any information not critical to the argument is not critical to the essay.
• Condensing foot/end notes: Many journals and instructors allow you to provide a citation at the end of a paragraph with the multiple sources that helped you create that paragraph, rather than providing a citation at every sentence, or portion of sentence that rested on a secondary source.

When to quote directly:

In many ways, the same situations that call for a citation to the general source also make for a good situation in which to include a direct quotation (as opposed to paraphrasing your information). At the same time, you don’t want to overquote—we’re interested in your thoughts, not those of five other experts. You should also use your own words unless there’s a compelling need to quote, such as bringing in a unique voice or capturing a controversial fact or opinion. A good essay offers variety in a number of ways—word choice, sentence structure, and which sources provide quotations. Here are some places where a direct quotation from the source are warranted:

• An authoritative source—the main book on a topic—says something important or controversial.
• When any source uses language that is compelling, and thus should not just be paraphrased.
• In order to get the “flavor” or language of the wording from a primary source.
• Most quotes in your paper should come from primary sources, not secondary ones.

How to quote:

• Avoid “block quotes” unless the reader must see a large portion of the primary source to understand your analysis, and all of that explanation must be in the source’s voice. That is, when quoting, include just enough of the quotation to make sense, without adding parts of the quote that don’t pertain to your analysis or go into more detail than needed. But on the whole, phrases or a single sentence cover your bases.
• When you do need to use a block quote, indent it and use single spacing.
• Never let any quote—including a rare block quote—stand on its own. You must explain what the source means. The requirement that all sources must be analyzed in the text means that you should not begin or end a paragraph with a quotation, except perhaps in a very rare stylistic moment when doing so will not leave the reader confused.
• If you do not want to use all your source’s words, you may use ellipses, which are three spaced dots like this (make sure you put a space between each period, never put them directly beside each other): . . .
• If you would like to use a source’s words, but need to change something to make it fit into your sentence (such as a verb tense or a pronoun) use square brackets for a word you changed. You may NOT change an entire word.
• However, if you need to change several words in a quotation, it’s usually best to quote only a phrase, rather than burdening a quote with ellipses and brackets.
• Make sure that your quote supports the point you’re trying to make and doesn’t read like a random quote from the individual under examination.

Some examples from Mary Rowland’s Captivity Narrative [1682]

Mary Rowlandson was a Puritan woman who was captured by Native Americans during King Phillip’s War and held captive for eleven weeks. When she returned to her home, she wrote a narrative about her experiences. What follows are some examples of how you might use parts of one quotation from Rowlandson’s book. From that primary source:

“It is not my tongue, or pen, can express the sorrows of my heart, and bitterness of my spirit that I had at this departure: but God was with me in a wonderful manner, carrying me along, and bearing up my spirit, that it did not quite fail. One of the Indians carried my poor wounded babe upon a horse; it went moaning all along, ‘I shall die, I shall die.’ I went on foot after it, with sorrow that cannot be expressed.”

• Double quotation marks [“] signal the beginning and end of a quotation. If there are quotations within what you are quoting—in this case, the words of the child [“I shall die, I shall die”]—mark them with single quotation marks [‘]. The use of double quotations are standard in American English (but not British English). Single quotes within double quotes indicate interior quotes the passage.
• See the indent in the example above, which counts as “long.”

If I wanted to use the quote to discuss Rowlandson’s state of mind :

Early in her captivity, Mary Rowlandson experienced enormous fear and loss. As she put it, her “pen [could not] express the sorrows of my heart, and bitterness of my spirit” upon leaving her community.

• In the state of mind quote above, the part of the quote that covers her faith isn’t necessary to make this point and is omitted.
• In the above example, the altered verb tense ( could not , rather than can ) flows better with the sentence but does not change Rowlandson’s meaning.
• Changing verb tenses and substituting or clarifying a pronoun that is not clear in the original mark the limits of altering a quote, for the most part.
• Any source quoted must fit the point .
• This passage is about her feelings, not what the Indians were doing.
• It’s also incorrect because there are no “stitching” words or a colon to link the primary source quote to the analytical statement of the author.
• Correct : The Indians who captured Rowlandson were particularly cruel. As Rowlandson noted, while her child moaned, she “went on foot after it, with sorrow that cannot be expressed.”
• For example, in a sentence about how Rowlandson used language that suggested a physical experience of faith: Rowlandson referred to physical, rather than emotional, manifestations of her faith frequently. For example, she spoke of “God . . . carrying me along, and bearing up my spirit.”
• Note that brackets were not necessary because all words are in original.
• Note that the language of “poor wounded babe” is an expressive phrase that captures Rowlandson’s voice.
• Substituting [the child] for “it” makes the sentence clearer.

How History is Made: A Student’s Guide to Reading, Writing, and Thinking in the Discipline Copyright © 2022 by Stephanie Cole; Kimberly Breuer; Scott W. Palmer; and Brandon Blakeslee is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Citation Style for UCD History Essays

Citation Style for UCD History Essays  contains details about how to reference books, journal articles, book chapters in edited books, newspaper articles, dissertations, archival sources, and website content in your essays using footnotes. The School follows the Chicago system of referencing. It is essential that you familiarise yourself with the Chicago style as referencing underpins academic analysis and argument. First year modules will devote time to teaching and learning referencing.

The following resources will also help you learn the Chicago system of referencing:

1) The style guide:   (opens in a new window) Notes and Bibliography Style (chicagomanualofstyle.org)

2) UCD Library's excellent resources:   (opens in a new window) Introduction - Chicago Style Guide 17th Edition - LibGuides at UCD Library  and  Chicago Referencing Style

Plagiarism 

Plagiarism is the inclusion, in any form of assessment, of material without due acknowledgement of its original source. Plagiarism is a form of academic dishonesty and may include, but is not limited to, the following:

• Presenting in your own name, work authored by a third party, such as other students, friends or family (with or without permission), or work purchased through any source or given to you by a third party1, including organisations such as essay mills. The original source may be in written form or in any other media (for example, audio or video);
• Presenting ideas, theories, concepts, methodologies or data from the work of another without due acknowledgement;
• Presenting text, digital work (e.g. computer code or programs), music, video recordings or images copied with only minor changes from sources such as the internet, books, journals or any other media, without due acknowledgement;
• Paraphrasing (i.e., putting a passage or idea from another source into your own words), without due acknowledgement of the source;
• Failing to include appropriate citation of all original sources;
• Representing collaborative work as solely your own;
• Presenting work for an assignment which has also been submitted (in part or whole) for another assignment at UCD or another institution (i.e. self-plagiarism).

Plagiarism can be either intentional or unintentional. In both instances it is a serious academic offence and may be subject to University disciplinary procedures.

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UCD Library provides education about, and promotes University policy on, academic integrity and has a repository of resources on plagiarism and how to avoid it.

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The History Department's Concise Guide to Essay Writing includes several pages on footnotes and bibliography layout. This should be accessible via your course's Learn site.

UC History uses the Chicago, notes and bibliography (NB), style, which their guide is based on. For  a range of related referencing examples this Purdue University Online Writing Lab (OWL) is also well worth exploring.

Books about history research & writing

Going to the sources : a guide to historical research and writing The historian's toolbox : a student's guide to the theory and craft of history The information-literate historian : a guide to research for history students A short guide to writing about history Writing history essays : a student's guide Writing history : theory & practice

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How to cite when writing a paragraph in my history paper that is composed entirely of historical facts?

Since almost everything I have found is something I pulled from a source, how do I write my essay without citing basically every single line?

Edit: Yes, in my paper I am arguing something which will be said in my own words. I am writing a few paragraphs about the historical background of the situation, and that is where my question comes into play.

• Then what is the point of writing it? –  Peter K. Commented May 5, 2016 at 1:48
• This might be helpful to you: academia.stackexchange.com/questions/67459/… –  User001 Commented May 5, 2016 at 3:13

3 Answers 3

In addition to Pete's answer , I also want to mention that well-known historical facts generally do not require a citation .

For instance:

The American Civil War was fought from 1861 to 1865.

This is well-known enough to be assumed as "general knowledge." On the other hand,

The average Pennsylvania farmer in the 18th century did not leave an estate worth 400 pounds, as de Crèvecoeur reports in his Letters from an American Farmer [citation needed].

is sufficiently obscure that it cannot get the same treatment.

• 1 As a slight addendum, if you assert anything that goes against CW, you'll need to cite it too. So even if you have clear documentation of the fact that (hypothetically) the US Civil War was from 1858-1866, since that differs from CW, citation is necessary if you're going to cite it as such. –  user0721090601 Commented May 5, 2016 at 2:29
• 1 @guifa what's CW? –  Sergii Dymchenko Commented May 5, 2016 at 5:10
• 1 @SergeyDymchenko conventional wisdom (that which is generally held or considered to be true) –  user0721090601 Commented May 5, 2016 at 5:12

Your question suggests that you think that a "history research paper" is entirely comprised of assertions of historical fact. This is not the case. I strongly recommend that you read some history research papers in order to see what they actually involve. Then look back at the directions for the paper you're given: were you not asked to argue for something or other? If things are still not clear, you need to talk to your instructor: far better to do this than to try write a paper having no idea what such a paper should be.

Generally, in a history paper, you not only state facts, you ought to describe and derive insights from those facts -- that is where the novelty part comes in. Hence, you only need to cite first instance of the distinct facts in your content.

You should assess a set of research papers on history (as Pete suggested ) to understand the flow of citations the convention follow. Apart from that, look for places that deviate from conventional wisdom (as commented by @guifa), i.e., statements that contradict widely accepted knowledge. Such instances should also be cited.

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Article Contents

“ keep it a secret ”: leaked documents suggest philip morris international, and its japanese affiliate, continue to exploit science for profit.

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Sophie Braznell, Louis Laurence, Iona Fitzpatrick, Anna B Gilmore, “ Keep it a secret ”: leaked documents suggest Philip Morris International, and its Japanese affiliate, continue to exploit science for profit, Nicotine & Tobacco Research , 2024;, ntae101, https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/ntae101

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The tobacco industry has a long history of manipulating science to conceal the harms of its products. As part of its proclaimed transformation, the world’s largest tobacco company, Philip Morris International (PMI), states it conducts “ transparent science ”. This paper uses recently leaked documents from PMI and its Japanese affiliate, Philip Morris Japan (PMJ), to examine its contemporary scientific practices.

23 documents dating 2012 through 2020 available from Truth Tobacco Industry Documents Library were examined using Forster's hermeneutic approach to analysing corporate documentation. Thematic analysis using the Science for Profit Model was conducted to assess whether PMI/PMJ employed known corporate strategies to influence science in their interests.

PMJ contracted a third-party external research organisation, CMIC, to covertly fund a study on smoking cessation conducted by Kyoto University academics. No public record of PMJ’s funding or involvement in this study was found. PMJ paid life sciences consultancy, FTI-Innovations, ¥3,000,000 (approx. £20,000) a month between 2014 and 2019 to undertake extensive science-adjacent work, including building relationships with key scientific opinion leaders and using academic events to promote PMI’s science, products and messaging. FTI-Innovation’s work was hidden internally and externally. These activities resemble known strategies to influence the conduct, publication and reach of science, and conceal scientific activities.

The documents reveal PMI/PMJ’s recent activities mirror past practices to manipulate science, undermining PMI’s proclaimed transformation. Tobacco industry scientific practices remain a threat to public health, highlighting the urgent need for reform to protect science from the tobacco industry’s vested interests.

Implications: Japan is a key market for PMI, being a launch market for IQOS and having the highest heated tobacco product use globally. Our findings, in conjunction with other recent evidence, challenge PMI’s assertion that it is a source of credible science and cast doubt on the quality and ethical defensibility of its research, especially its studies conducted in Japan. This, in turn, brings into question the true public health impacts of its products. There is urgent need to reform the way tobacco-related science is funded and conducted. Implementation of models through which research can be funded using the industry’s profits while minimising its influence should be explored.

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