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Social media harms teens’ mental health, mounting evidence shows. what now.

Understanding what is going on in teens’ minds is necessary for targeted policy suggestions

Most teens use social media, often for hours on end. Some social scientists are confident that such use is harming their mental health. Now they want to pinpoint what explains the link.

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By Sujata Gupta

February 20, 2024 at 7:30 am

In January, Mark Zuckerberg, CEO of Facebook’s parent company Meta, appeared at a congressional hearing to answer questions about how social media potentially harms children. Zuckerberg opened by saying: “The existing body of scientific work has not shown a causal link between using social media and young people having worse mental health.”

But many social scientists would disagree with that statement. In recent years, studies have started to show a causal link between teen social media use and reduced well-being or mood disorders, chiefly depression and anxiety.

Ironically, one of the most cited studies into this link focused on Facebook.

Researchers delved into whether the platform’s introduction across college campuses in the mid 2000s increased symptoms associated with depression and anxiety. The answer was a clear yes , says MIT economist Alexey Makarin, a coauthor of the study, which appeared in the November 2022 American Economic Review . “There is still a lot to be explored,” Makarin says, but “[to say] there is no causal evidence that social media causes mental health issues, to that I definitely object.”

The concern, and the studies, come from statistics showing that social media use in teens ages 13 to 17 is now almost ubiquitous. Two-thirds of teens report using TikTok, and some 60 percent of teens report using Instagram or Snapchat, a 2022 survey found. (Only 30 percent said they used Facebook.) Another survey showed that girls, on average, allot roughly 3.4 hours per day to TikTok, Instagram and Facebook, compared with roughly 2.1 hours among boys. At the same time, more teens are showing signs of depression than ever, especially girls ( SN: 6/30/23 ).

As more studies show a strong link between these phenomena, some researchers are starting to shift their attention to possible mechanisms. Why does social media use seem to trigger mental health problems? Why are those effects unevenly distributed among different groups, such as girls or young adults? And can the positives of social media be teased out from the negatives to provide more targeted guidance to teens, their caregivers and policymakers?

“You can’t design good public policy if you don’t know why things are happening,” says Scott Cunningham, an economist at Baylor University in Waco, Texas.

Increasing rigor

Concerns over the effects of social media use in children have been circulating for years, resulting in a massive body of scientific literature. But those mostly correlational studies could not show if teen social media use was harming mental health or if teens with mental health problems were using more social media.

Moreover, the findings from such studies were often inconclusive, or the effects on mental health so small as to be inconsequential. In one study that received considerable media attention, psychologists Amy Orben and Andrew Przybylski combined data from three surveys to see if they could find a link between technology use, including social media, and reduced well-being. The duo gauged the well-being of over 355,000 teenagers by focusing on questions around depression, suicidal thinking and self-esteem.

Digital technology use was associated with a slight decrease in adolescent well-being , Orben, now of the University of Cambridge, and Przybylski, of the University of Oxford, reported in 2019 in Nature Human Behaviour . But the duo downplayed that finding, noting that researchers have observed similar drops in adolescent well-being associated with drinking milk, going to the movies or eating potatoes.

Holes have begun to appear in that narrative thanks to newer, more rigorous studies.

In one longitudinal study, researchers — including Orben and Przybylski — used survey data on social media use and well-being from over 17,400 teens and young adults to look at how individuals’ responses to a question gauging life satisfaction changed between 2011 and 2018. And they dug into how the responses varied by gender, age and time spent on social media.

Social media use was associated with a drop in well-being among teens during certain developmental periods, chiefly puberty and young adulthood, the team reported in 2022 in Nature Communications . That translated to lower well-being scores around ages 11 to 13 for girls and ages 14 to 15 for boys. Both groups also reported a drop in well-being around age 19. Moreover, among the older teens, the team found evidence for the Goldilocks Hypothesis: the idea that both too much and too little time spent on social media can harm mental health.

“There’s hardly any effect if you look over everybody. But if you look at specific age groups, at particularly what [Orben] calls ‘windows of sensitivity’ … you see these clear effects,” says L.J. Shrum, a consumer psychologist at HEC Paris who was not involved with this research. His review of studies related to teen social media use and mental health is forthcoming in the Journal of the Association for Consumer Research.

Cause and effect

That longitudinal study hints at causation, researchers say. But one of the clearest ways to pin down cause and effect is through natural or quasi-experiments. For these in-the-wild experiments, researchers must identify situations where the rollout of a societal “treatment” is staggered across space and time. They can then compare outcomes among members of the group who received the treatment to those still in the queue — the control group.

That was the approach Makarin and his team used in their study of Facebook. The researchers homed in on the staggered rollout of Facebook across 775 college campuses from 2004 to 2006. They combined that rollout data with student responses to the National College Health Assessment, a widely used survey of college students’ mental and physical health.

The team then sought to understand if those survey questions captured diagnosable mental health problems. Specifically, they had roughly 500 undergraduate students respond to questions both in the National College Health Assessment and in validated screening tools for depression and anxiety. They found that mental health scores on the assessment predicted scores on the screenings. That suggested that a drop in well-being on the college survey was a good proxy for a corresponding increase in diagnosable mental health disorders. 

Compared with campuses that had not yet gained access to Facebook, college campuses with Facebook experienced a 2 percentage point increase in the number of students who met the diagnostic criteria for anxiety or depression, the team found.

When it comes to showing a causal link between social media use in teens and worse mental health, “that study really is the crown jewel right now,” says Cunningham, who was not involved in that research.

A need for nuance

The social media landscape today is vastly different than the landscape of 20 years ago. Facebook is now optimized for maximum addiction, Shrum says, and other newer platforms, such as Snapchat, Instagram and TikTok, have since copied and built on those features. Paired with the ubiquity of social media in general, the negative effects on mental health may well be larger now.

Moreover, social media research tends to focus on young adults — an easier cohort to study than minors. That needs to change, Cunningham says. “Most of us are worried about our high school kids and younger.” 

And so, researchers must pivot accordingly. Crucially, simple comparisons of social media users and nonusers no longer make sense. As Orben and Przybylski’s 2022 work suggested, a teen not on social media might well feel worse than one who briefly logs on. 

Researchers must also dig into why, and under what circumstances, social media use can harm mental health, Cunningham says. Explanations for this link abound. For instance, social media is thought to crowd out other activities or increase people’s likelihood of comparing themselves unfavorably with others. But big data studies, with their reliance on existing surveys and statistical analyses, cannot address those deeper questions. “These kinds of papers, there’s nothing you can really ask … to find these plausible mechanisms,” Cunningham says.

One ongoing effort to understand social media use from this more nuanced vantage point is the SMART Schools project out of the University of Birmingham in England. Pedagogical expert Victoria Goodyear and her team are comparing mental and physical health outcomes among children who attend schools that have restricted cell phone use to those attending schools without such a policy. The researchers described the protocol of that study of 30 schools and over 1,000 students in the July BMJ Open.

Goodyear and colleagues are also combining that natural experiment with qualitative research. They met with 36 five-person focus groups each consisting of all students, all parents or all educators at six of those schools. The team hopes to learn how students use their phones during the day, how usage practices make students feel, and what the various parties think of restrictions on cell phone use during the school day.

Talking to teens and those in their orbit is the best way to get at the mechanisms by which social media influences well-being — for better or worse, Goodyear says. Moving beyond big data to this more personal approach, however, takes considerable time and effort. “Social media has increased in pace and momentum very, very quickly,” she says. “And research takes a long time to catch up with that process.”

Until that catch-up occurs, though, researchers cannot dole out much advice. “What guidance could we provide to young people, parents and schools to help maintain the positives of social media use?” Goodyear asks. “There’s not concrete evidence yet.”

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Social media brings benefits and risks to teens. Psychology can help identify a path forward

New psychological research exposes the harms and positive outcomes of social media. APA’s recommendations aim to add science-backed balance to the discussion

Vol. 54 No. 6 Print version: page 46

• Social Media and Internet

This was the year that social media itself went viral—and not in a good way. In March, President Joe Biden threatened to ban the Chinese-owned video-sharing site TikTok. In April, a bipartisan group of senators introduced legislation to ban kids under 13 from joining social media. In May, the U.S. surgeon general issued an advisory urging action to protect children online ( Social Media and Youth Mental Health: The U.S. Surgeon General’s Advisory , 2023 ). Just days earlier, APA issued its first-ever health advisory, providing recommendations to protect youth from the risks of social media ( Health Advisory on Social Media Use in Adolescence , 2023 ).

As youth mental health continues to suffer, parents, teachers, and legislators are sounding the alarm on social media. But fear and misinformation often go hand in hand. APA’s recommendations aim to add science-backed balance to the discussion. “There’s such a negative conversation happening around social media, and there is good reason for that. However, it’s important to realize there can be benefits for many teens,” said Jacqueline Nesi, PhD, an assistant professor of psychology at Brown University who studies technology use in youth, and a member of the APA panel that produced the health advisory. “Teens (and adults) obviously get something out of social media. We have to take a balanced view if we want to reach teens and help them use these platforms in healthier ways.”

[ Related:  What parents should know to keep their teens safe on social media ]

In 2023, an estimated 4.9 billion people worldwide are expected to use social media. For teens who grew up with technology, those digital platforms are woven into the fabric of their lives. “Social media is here to stay,” said Mary Alvord, PhD, a clinical psychologist in Maryland and adjunct professor at George Washington University, and a member of the APA panel. That doesn’t mean we have to accept its dangers, however. “Just as we decide when kids are old enough to drive, and we teach them to be good drivers, we can establish guidelines and teach children to use social media safely,” Alvord said.

Social media charms and harms

Even before the COVID-19 pandemic, rates of depression, anxiety, and suicide in young people were climbing. In 2021, more than 40% of high school students reported depressive symptoms, with girls and LGBTQ+ youth reporting even higher rates of poor mental health and suicidal thoughts, according to data from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( American Economic Review , Vol. 112, No. 11, 2022 ).

Young people may be particularly vulnerable to social media’s charms—as well as its harms. During adolescent development, brain regions associated with the desire for attention, feedback, and reinforcement from peers become more sensitive. Meanwhile, the brain regions involved in self-control have not fully matured. That can be a recipe for disaster. “The need to prioritize peers is a normal part of adolescent development, and youth are turning to social media for some of that longed-for peer contact,” said clinical psychologist Mary Ann McCabe, PhD, ABPP, a member-at-large of APA’s Board of Directors, adjunct associate professor of pediatrics at George Washington University School of Medicine, and cochair of the expert advisory panel. “The original yearning is social, but kids can accidentally wander into harmful content.”

[ Related: Potential risks of content, features, and functions: The science of how social media affects youth ]

The potential risks of social media may be especially acute during early adolescence when puberty delivers an onslaught of biological, psychological, and social changes. One longitudinal analysis of data from youth in the United Kingdom found distinct developmental windows during which adolescents are especially sensitive to social media’s impact. During those windows—around 11 to 13 for girls and 14 to 15 for boys—more social media use predicts a decrease in life satisfaction a year later, while lower use predicts greater life satisfaction ( Orben, A., et al.,  Nature Communications , Vol. 13, No. 1649, 2022 ).

One takeaway from such research is that adults should monitor kids’ social media use closely in early adolescence, between the ages of 10 and 14 or so. As kids become more mature and develop digital literacy skills, they can earn more autonomy.

The cost of connection

The internet is at its best when it brings people together. Adults can help kids get the most out of social media by encouraging them to use online platforms to engage with others in positive ways. “The primary benefit is social connection, and that’s true for teens who are connecting with friends they already have or making new connections,” Nesi said. “On social media, they can find people who share their identities and interests.”

Online social interaction can promote healthy socialization among teens, especially when they’re experiencing stress or social isolation. For youth who have anxiety or struggle in social situations, practicing conversations over social media can be an important step toward feeling more comfortable interacting with peers in person. Social media can also help kids stay in touch with their support networks. That can be especially important for kids from marginalized groups, such as LGBTQ+ adolescents who may be reluctant or unable to discuss their identity with caregivers ( Craig, S. L., et al.,  Social Media + Society , Vol. 7, No. 1, 2021 ). In such cases, online support can be a lifeline.

“We know from suicide prevention research that it’s critical for people to know they aren’t alone,” Alvord said.

Kids also learn about themselves online. “Social media provides a lot of opportunities for young people to discover new information, learn about current events, engage with issues, and have their voices heard,” Nesi added. “And it gives them an opportunity to explore their identities, which is an important task of the adolescent years.”

Yet all those opportunities come at a cost. “There is a lot of good that can come from social media. The problem is, the algorithms can also lead you down rabbit holes,” Alvord said. Technology is expertly designed to pull us in. Features such as “like” buttons, notifications, and videos that start playing automatically make it incredibly hard to step away. At the extreme, social media use can interfere with sleep, physical activity, schoolwork, and in-person social interactions. “The risk of technologies that pull us in is that they can get in the way of all the things we know are important for a teen’s development,” Nesi said.

Research suggests that setting limits and boundaries around social media, combined with discussion and coaching from adults, is the best way to promote positive outcomes for youth ( Wachs, S., et al.,  Computers & Education , Vol. 160, No. 1, 2021 ). Parents should talk to kids often about social media and technology and also use strategies like limiting the amount of time kids can use devices and removing devices from the bedroom at night. Caregivers should also keep an eye out for problematic behaviors, such as strong cravings to use social media, an inability to stop, and lying or sneaking around in order to use devices when they aren’t allowed.

[ Related:   How much is too much social media use: A Q&A with Mitch Prinstein, PhD ]

In helping to set boundaries around social media, it’s important that parents don’t simply limit access to devices, Alvord added. “Removing devices can feel punitive. Instead, parents should focus on encouraging kids to spend time with other activities they find valuable, such as movement and art activities they enjoy,” she said. “When kids are spending more time on those things, they’re less likely to be stuck on social media.”

Dangerous content

Spending too much time on social media is one cause for concern. Dangerous content is another. Despite efforts by caregivers and tech companies to protect kids from problematic material, they still encounter plenty of it online—including mis- and disinformation, racism and hate speech, and content that promotes dangerous behaviors such as disordered eating and self-harm.

During the first year of the pandemic, when kids were spending more time at home and online, McCabe saw a flurry of new diagnoses of eating disorders in her teen patients and their friends. “These kids often reported that they started by watching something relatively benign, like exercise videos,” she said. But their social media algorithms doubled down on that content, offering up more and more material related to body image and weight. “It was an echo chamber,” McCabe added. “And several of my patients attributed their eating disorders to this online behavior.”

Unfortunately, McCabe’s observations seem to be part of a common pattern. A large body of research, cited in APA’s health advisory, suggests that using social media for comparisons and feedback related to physical appearance is linked to poorer body image, disordered eating, and depressive symptoms, especially among girls.

Other research shows that when youth are exposed to unsafe behaviors online, such as substance use or self-harm, they may be at greater risk of engaging in similar behaviors themselves. In a longitudinal study of high school students, Nesi and colleagues showed that kids who saw their peers drinking alcohol on social media were more likely to start drinking and to binge drink 1 year later, even after controlling for demographic and developmental risk factors ( Journal of Adolescent Health , Vol. 60, No. 6, 2017 ).

Cyberbullying is another source of worry, both for young people and their caregivers. Indeed, research shows that online bullying and harassment can be harmful for a young person’s psychological well-being. APA’s health advisory cited several studies that found online bullying and harassment can be more severe than offline bullying. The research showed it can increase the risk of mental health problems in adolescents—with risks for both perpetrators and victims of cyberhate.

Ingrained racism

Search engines and social media algorithms can expose adolescents to other types of cyberhate, including racism. In fact, online algorithms often have structural racism and bias baked in, in ways that White users might not even notice. Sometimes, the algorithms themselves churn out biased or racist content. TikTok, for instance, has come under fire for recommending new accounts based on the appearance of the people a user already follows—with the inadvertent effect of segregating the platform. In addition to this form of “algorithmic bias,” people of color are frequently subjected to what some researchers call “filter bias.” In one common example, the beauty filters built into sites like Instagram or Snapchat might apply paler skin or more typically White facial features to a user’s selfies.

Like microaggressions in offline life, online racism in the form of algorithmic and filter bias can take a toll on mental health, said Brendesha Tynes, PhD, a professor of education and psychology at the University of Southern California, and a member of the APA advisory panel. In an ongoing daily diary study with adolescents, she is finding evidence that people who are exposed to algorithmic and filter bias are at increased risk of next-day depression and anxiety symptoms.

“I’m an adult who studies these issues and who has a lot of strategies to protect myself, and it can still be really hard” to cope with online racism, she said. Impressionable teens who haven’t learned such strategies are likely to experience even greater psychological impacts from the racism they encounter every day on social media. “We’re just beginning to understand the profound negative impacts of online racism,” Tynes said. “We need all hands on deck in supporting kids of color and helping them cope with these experiences.”

Despite the drawbacks of technology, there is a silver lining. Tynes has found Black youth receive valuable social support from other Black people on social media. Those interactions can help them learn to think critically about the racism they encounter. That’s important, since her research also shows that youth who are able to critique racism experience less psychological distress when they witness race-related traumatic events online ( Journal of Adolescent Health , Vol. 43, No. 6, 2008 ).

Tynes said more research is needed to understand how online racism affects youth and how best to protect them from its harms.

“Different groups have vastly different experiences online,” she said. “We need more detailed recommendations for specific groups.”

A role for psychology

How to protect kids from online racism is just one of a long list of questions on researchers’ wish lists. Digital technologies evolve so quickly that kids are off to a new platform before scientists can finish collecting data about yesterday’s favorite sites. “There’s so much we still don’t know about this topic. That’s understandably frustrating for people because social media is impacting people’s lives as we speak,” Nesi said.

It’s likely some groups, and some individuals, are more susceptible than others to the negative effects of social media, she added. “We need more information about who is more vulnerable and who is more resilient, and what it is they’re doing online that’s healthy versus harmful.”

While there is a lot of work to be done, Nesi said, “we’re getting closer.” As APA’s recommendations make clear, there is ample evidence some types of content and online behaviors can harm youth. Adult role models can work together with teens to understand the pitfalls of technology and establish boundaries to protect them from dangerous content and excessive screen time.

Psychological research shows children from a young age should be taught digital literacy skills such as identifying misinformation, protecting privacy, understanding how people can misrepresent themselves online, and how to critically evaluate race-related materials online. One way to promote those skills may be to lean into teens’ inherent skepticism of grown-ups. “You can teach kids that a lot of people want something from them,” Alvord said—whether it’s a stranger trying to message them on Instagram, or TikTok earning money by collecting their data or showing them branded content.

That’s not to say it’s easy to help kids develop a healthy relationship with social media. “By necessity, adolescents disagree more with their parents—and they are formidable when they insist on having something, like phones or social media, that all their friends have,” McCabe said. “But parents are eager for guidance. There is an appetite for this information now,” she added—and psychological scientists can help provide it.

That scientific research can inform broader efforts to keep children safe on social media as well. “Parents can’t do this alone,” Nesi said. “We need larger-scale changes to these platforms to protect kids.”

There are efforts to make such changes. The Kids Online Safety Act, a bipartisan bill introduced in April, establishes a duty of care for social media companies to protect minors from mental health harms, sex trafficking, narcotics, and other dangers. Additionally, the bill requires social media companies to go through independent, external audits, allows researcher access to platform data assets, and creates substantial youth and parental controls to create a safer digital environment. Even as legislators and tech companies consider those and other policies, researchers can continue their efforts to determine which actions might be most protective, said Nesi, who is currently leading a study to understand which features of social media are helpful versus harmful for kids at high risk of suicide. “For some kids, being able to connect with others and find support is really important. For others, social media may create more challenges than it solves,” Nesi said. “The key is making sure we don’t accidentally do any harm” by enacting restrictions and legislation that are not backed by science.

While researchers forge ahead, clinical psychologists, too, can add valuable insight for teens and their families. “Screens are a central part of adolescents’ lives, and that needs to be integrated into assessment and treatment,” Nesi said. “Clinicians can help families and teens take a step back and look at their social media use to figure out what’s working for them and what isn’t.”

Someday, McCabe said, digital literacy may be taught in schools the same way that youth learn about sexual health and substance use. “I hope we’ll come to a point where teaching about the healthy use of social media is an everyday occurrence,” she said. “Because of this dialogue that we’re having now among families and policymakers, we may see a new generation of kids whose entry into the digital world is very different, where we can use social media for connection and education but minimize the harms,” she added. “I hope this is the beginning of a new day.”

Social media recommendations

APA’s Health Advisory on Social Media Use in Adolescence makes these recommendations based on the scientific evidence to date:

• Youth using social media should be encouraged to use functions that create opportunities for social support, online companionship, and emotional intimacy that can promote healthy socialization.
• Social media use, functionality, and permissions/consenting should be tailored to youths’ developmental capabilities; designs created for adults may not be appropriate for children.
• In early adolescence (i.e., typically 10–14 years), adult monitoring (i.e., ongoing review, discussion, and coaching around social media content) is advised for most youths’ social media use; autonomy may increase gradually as kids age and if they gain digital literacy skills. However, monitoring should be balanced with youths’ appropriate needs for privacy.
• To reduce the risks of psychological harm, adolescents’ exposure to content on social media that depicts illegal or psychologically maladaptive behavior, including content that instructs or encourages youth to engage in health-risk behaviors, such as self-harm (e.g., cutting, suicide), harm to others, or those that encourage eating-disordered behavior (e.g., restrictive eating, purging, excessive exercise) should be minimized, reported, and removed; moreover, technology should not drive users to this content.
• To minimize psychological harm, adolescents’ exposure to “cyberhate” including online discrimination, prejudice, hate, or cyberbullying especially directed toward a marginalized group (e.g., racial, ethnic, gender, sexual, religious, ability status), or toward an individual because of their identity or allyship with a marginalized group should be minimized.
• Adolescents should be routinely screened for signs of “problematic social media use” that can impair their ability to engage in daily roles and routines, and may present risk for more serious psychological harms over time.
• The use of social media should be limited so as to not interfere with adolescents’ sleep and physical activity.
• Adolescents should limit use of social media for social comparison, particularly around beauty- or appearance-related content.
• Adolescents’ social media use should be preceded by training in social media literacy to ensure that users have developed psychologically-informed competencies and skills that will maximize the chances for balanced, safe, and meaningful social media use.
• Substantial resources should be provided for continued scientific examination of the positive and negative effects of social media on adolescent development.

Read the full recommendations and see the science behind them .

Further reading

Algorithms of oppression: How search engines reinforce racism Noble, S. U., New York University Press, 2018

Family Online Safety Institute

An updated agenda for the study of digital media use and adolescent development: Future directions following Odgers & Jensen (2020) Prinstein, M. J., et al., The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 2020

From Google searches to Russian disinformation: Adolescent critical race digital literacy needs and skills Tynes, B., et al., International Journal of Multicultural Education , 2021

How social media affects teen mental health: A missing link Orben, A., & Blakemore, S.J. Nature , Feb. 14, 2023

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Is social media use bad for young people’s mental health? It’s complicated.

July 17, 2023 – On May 23, U.S. Surgeon General Vivek Murthy issued an advisory warning about the potential dangers of social media for the mental health of children and teens . Laura Marciano , postdoctoral research fellow at the Lee Kum Sheung Center for Health and Happiness and in the  Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences at Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, says that social media use might be detrimental for young people’s well-being but can also have positive effects.

Q: What are your thoughts on the Surgeon General’s advisory?

A: The advisory highlighted compelling evidence published during the last decade on the potential harmful impact of social media on children and adolescents. Some of what young people experience online—including cyberbullying, online harassment and abuse, predatory behaviors, and exposure to violent, sexual, and hate-based content—can undoubtedly be negative. But social media experiences are not limited to these types of content.

Much of the scientific literature on the effects of social media use has focused on negative outcomes. But the link between social media use and young people’s mental health is complicated. Literature reviews show that study results are mixed: Associations between social media use and well-being can be positive, negative, and even largely null when advanced data analyses are carried out, and the size of the effects is small. And positive and negative effects can co-exist in the same individual. We are still discovering how to compare the effect size of social media use with the effects of other behavioral habits—such as physical activity, sleep, food consumption, life events, and time spent in offline social connections—and psychological processes happening offline. We are also still studying how social media use may be linked positively with well-being.

It’s important to note that many of the existing studies relied on data from people living in so-called WEIRD countries (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich and Democratic), thus leaving out the majority of the worldwide population living in the Global South. In addition, we know that populations like minorities, people experiencing health disparities and chronic health conditions , and international students can find social media extremely helpful for creating and maintaining social communities to which they feel they belong.

A number of large cohort studies have measured social media use according to time spent on various platforms. But it’s important to consider not just time spent, but whether that time is displacing time for other activities promoting well-being, like physical activity and sleep. Finally, the effects of social media use are idiosyncratic, meaning that each child and adolescent might be affected differently, which makes it difficult to generalize about the effects.

Literature reviews on interventions limiting social media use present a more balanced picture. For example, one comprehensive review on the effects of digital detox—refraining from using devices such as smartphones—wasn’t able to draw any clear conclusions about whether such detox could be effective at promoting a healthy way of life in the digital era, because the findings were mixed and contradictory.

Q: What has your research found regarding the potential risks and benefits of social media use among young people?

A: In my work with Prof. Vish Viswanath , we have summarized all the papers on how social media use is related to positive well-being measures, to balance the ongoing bias of the literature on negative outcomes such as depression and anxiety. We found both positive and negative correlations between different social media activities and well-being. The most consistent results show a link between social media activities and hedonic well-being (positive emotions) and social well-being. We also found that social comparison—such as comparing how many likes you have with how many someone else has, or comparing yourself to digitally enhanced images online—drives the negative correlation with well-being.

Meanwhile, I am working on the “ HappyB ” project, a longitudinal project based in Switzerland, through which I have collected data from more than 1,500 adolescents on their smartphone and social media use and well-being. In a recent study using that cohort, we looked at how social media use affects flourishing , a construct that encompasses happiness, meaning and purpose, physical and mental health, character, close social relationships, and financial stability. We found that certain positive social media experiences are associated with flourishing. In particular, having someone to talk to online when feeling lonely was the item most related to well-being. That is not surprising, considering that happiness is related to the quality of social connections.

Our data suggest that homing in on the psychological processes triggered during social media use is key to determining links with well-being. For example, we should consider if a young person feels appreciated and part of a group in a particular online conversation. Such information can help us shed light on the dynamics that shape young people’s well-being through digital activities.

In our research, we work to account for the fact that social media time is a sedentary behavior. We need to consider that any behavior that risks diminishing the time spent on physical activity and sleep—crucial components of brain development and well-being—might be detrimental. Interestingly, some studies suggest that spending a short amount of time using social media, around 1-2 hours, is beneficial, but—as with any extreme behavior—it can cause harm if the time spent online dominates a child’s or adolescent’s day.

It’s also important to consider how long the effects of social media last. Social media use may have small ephemeral effects that can accumulate over time. A step for future research is to disentangle short- versus long-term effects and how long each last. In addition, we should better understand how digital media usage affects the adolescent brain. Colleagues and I have summarized existing neuroscientific studies on the topic, but more multidisciplinary research is needed.

Q: What are some steps you’d recommend to make social media use safer for kids?

A: I’ll use a metaphor to answer this question. Is a car safe for someone that is not able to drive? To drive safely, we need to learn how to accelerate, recognize road signs, make safe decisions according to certain rules, and wear safety belts. Similarly, to use social media safely, I think we as a society—including schools, educators, and health providers—should provide children and families with clear, science-based information on both its positive and negative potential impacts.

We can also ask social media companies to pay more attention to how some features—such as the number of “likes”—can modulate adolescent brain activity, and to think about ways to limit negative effects. We might even ask adolescents to advise designers on how to create social media platforms specifically for them. It would be extremely valuable to ask them which features would be best for them and which ones they would like to avoid. I think that co-designing apps and conducting research with the young people who use the platforms is a crucial step.

For parents, my suggestion is to communicate with your children and promote a climate of safety and empathy when it comes to social media use. Try to use these platforms along with them, for example by explaining how a platform works and commenting on the content. Also, I would encourage schools and parents to collaborate on sharing information with young people about social media and well-being.

Also, to offset children’s sedentary time spent on social media, parents could offer them alternative extracurricular activities to provide some balance. But it’s important to remember that social well-being depends on the quality of social connections, and that social media can help to promote this kind of well-being. So I’d recommend trying to keep what is good—according to my research that would include instant messaging, the chance to talk to people when someone is feeling lonely, and funny or inspirational content—and minimizing what’s negative, such as too much sedentary time or too much time spent on social comparison.

– Karen Feldscher

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Social Media Addiction and Its Impact on College Students' Academic Performance: The Mediating Role of Stress

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Social media use can bring negative effects to college students, such as social media addiction (SMA) and decline in academic performance. SMA may increase the perceived stress level of college students, and stress has a negative impact on academic performance, but this potential mediating role of stress has not been verified in existing studies. In this paper, a research model was developed to investigate the antecedent variables of SMA, and the relationship between SMA, stress and academic performance. With the data of 372 Chinese college students (mean age 21.3, 42.5% males), Partial Least Squares, Structural Equation Model was adopted to evaluate measurement model and structural model. The results show that use intensity is an important predictor of SMA, and both SMA and stress have a negative impact on college students’ academic performance. In addition, we further confirmed that stress plays a mediating role in the relationship between SMA and college students’ academic performance.

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This study is supported by the Planning Subject for the 14th Five-year Plan of National Education Sciences (Grant No. EIA210425).

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Zhao, L. Social Media Addiction and Its Impact on College Students' Academic Performance: The Mediating Role of Stress. Asia-Pacific Edu Res 32 , 81–90 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-021-00635-0

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Feb 15, 2023

6 Example Essays on Social Media | Advantages, Effects, and Outlines

Got an essay assignment about the effects of social media we got you covered check out our examples and outlines below.

Social media has become one of our society's most prominent ways of communication and information sharing in a very short time. It has changed how we communicate and has given us a platform to express our views and opinions and connect with others. It keeps us informed about the world around us. Social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and LinkedIn have brought individuals from all over the world together, breaking down geographical borders and fostering a genuinely global community.

However, social media comes with its difficulties. With the rise of misinformation, cyberbullying, and privacy problems, it's critical to utilize these platforms properly and be aware of the risks. Students in the academic world are frequently assigned essays about the impact of social media on numerous elements of our lives, such as relationships, politics, and culture. These essays necessitate a thorough comprehension of the subject matter, critical thinking, and the ability to synthesize and convey information clearly and succinctly.

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6 Examples of Social Media Essays

Here are 6 examples of Social Media Essays:

The Impact of Social Media on Relationships and Communication

Introduction:.

The way we share information and build relationships has evolved as a direct result of the prevalence of social media in our daily lives. The influence of social media on interpersonal connections and conversation is a hot topic. Although social media has many positive effects, such as bringing people together regardless of physical proximity and making communication quicker and more accessible, it also has a dark side that can affect interpersonal connections and dialogue.

Positive Effects:

Connecting People Across Distances

One of social media's most significant benefits is its ability to connect individuals across long distances. People can use social media platforms to interact and stay in touch with friends and family far away. People can now maintain intimate relationships with those they care about, even when physically separated.

Improved Communication Speed and Efficiency

Additionally, the proliferation of social media sites has accelerated and simplified communication. Thanks to instant messaging, users can have short, timely conversations rather than lengthy ones via email. Furthermore, social media facilitates group communication, such as with classmates or employees, by providing a unified forum for such activities.

Negative Effects:

Decreased Face-to-Face Communication

The decline in in-person interaction is one of social media's most pernicious consequences on interpersonal connections and dialogue. People's reliance on digital communication over in-person contact has increased along with the popularity of social media. Face-to-face interaction has suffered as a result, which has adverse effects on interpersonal relationships and the development of social skills.

Decreased Emotional Intimacy

Another adverse effect of social media on relationships and communication is decreased emotional intimacy. Digital communication lacks the nonverbal cues and facial expressions critical in building emotional connections with others. This can make it more difficult for people to develop close and meaningful relationships, leading to increased loneliness and isolation.

Increased Conflict and Miscommunication

Finally, social media can also lead to increased conflict and miscommunication. The anonymity and distance provided by digital communication can lead to misunderstandings and hurtful comments that might not have been made face-to-face. Additionally, social media can provide a platform for cyberbullying , which can have severe consequences for the victim's mental health and well-being.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, the impact of social media on relationships and communication is a complex issue with both positive and negative effects. While social media platforms offer many benefits, such as connecting people across distances and enabling faster and more accessible communication, they also have a dark side that can negatively affect relationships and communication. It is up to individuals to use social media responsibly and to prioritize in-person communication in their relationships and interactions with others.

The Role of Social Media in the Spread of Misinformation and Fake News

Social media has revolutionized the way information is shared and disseminated. However, the ease and speed at which data can be spread on social media also make it a powerful tool for spreading misinformation and fake news. Misinformation and fake news can seriously affect public opinion, influence political decisions, and even cause harm to individuals and communities.

The Pervasiveness of Misinformation and Fake News on Social Media

Misinformation and fake news are prevalent on social media platforms, where they can spread quickly and reach a large audience. This is partly due to the way social media algorithms work, which prioritizes content likely to generate engagement, such as sensational or controversial stories. As a result, false information can spread rapidly and be widely shared before it is fact-checked or debunked.

The Influence of Social Media on Public Opinion

Social media can significantly impact public opinion, as people are likelier to believe the information they see shared by their friends and followers. This can lead to a self-reinforcing cycle, where misinformation and fake news are spread and reinforced, even in the face of evidence to the contrary.

The Challenge of Correcting Misinformation and Fake News

Correcting misinformation and fake news on social media can be a challenging task. This is partly due to the speed at which false information can spread and the difficulty of reaching the same audience exposed to the wrong information in the first place. Additionally, some individuals may be resistant to accepting correction, primarily if the incorrect information supports their beliefs or biases.

In conclusion, the function of social media in disseminating misinformation and fake news is complex and urgent. While social media has revolutionized the sharing of information, it has also made it simpler for false information to propagate and be widely believed. Individuals must be accountable for the information they share and consume, and social media firms must take measures to prevent the spread of disinformation and fake news on their platforms.

The Effects of Social Media on Mental Health and Well-Being

Social media has become an integral part of modern life, with billions of people around the world using platforms like Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter to stay connected with others and access information. However, while social media has many benefits, it can also negatively affect mental health and well-being.

Comparison and Low Self-Esteem

One of the key ways that social media can affect mental health is by promoting feelings of comparison and low self-esteem. People often present a curated version of their lives on social media, highlighting their successes and hiding their struggles. This can lead others to compare themselves unfavorably, leading to feelings of inadequacy and low self-esteem.

Cyberbullying and Online Harassment

Another way that social media can negatively impact mental health is through cyberbullying and online harassment. Social media provides a platform for anonymous individuals to harass and abuse others, leading to feelings of anxiety, fear, and depression.

Social Isolation

Despite its name, social media can also contribute to feelings of isolation. At the same time, people may have many online friends but need more meaningful in-person connections and support. This can lead to feelings of loneliness and depression.

Addiction and Overuse

Finally, social media can be addictive, leading to overuse and negatively impacting mental health and well-being. People may spend hours each day scrolling through their feeds, neglecting other important areas of their lives, such as work, family, and self-care.

In sum, social media has positive and negative consequences on one's psychological and emotional well-being. Realizing this, and taking measures like reducing one's social media use, reaching out to loved ones for help, and prioritizing one's well-being, are crucial. In addition, it's vital that social media giants take ownership of their platforms and actively encourage excellent mental health and well-being.

The Use of Social Media in Political Activism and Social Movements

Social media has recently become increasingly crucial in political action and social movements. Platforms such as Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram have given people new ways to express themselves, organize protests, and raise awareness about social and political issues.

Raising Awareness and Mobilizing Action

One of the most important uses of social media in political activity and social movements has been to raise awareness about important issues and mobilize action. Hashtags such as #MeToo and #BlackLivesMatter, for example, have brought attention to sexual harassment and racial injustice, respectively. Similarly, social media has been used to organize protests and other political actions, allowing people to band together and express themselves on a bigger scale.

Connecting with like-minded individuals

A second method in that social media has been utilized in political activity and social movements is to unite like-minded individuals. Through social media, individuals can join online groups, share knowledge and resources, and work with others to accomplish shared objectives. This has been especially significant for geographically scattered individuals or those without access to traditional means of political organizing.

Challenges and Limitations

As a vehicle for political action and social movements, social media has faced many obstacles and restrictions despite its many advantages. For instance, the propagation of misinformation and fake news on social media can impede attempts to disseminate accurate and reliable information. In addition, social media corporations have been condemned for censorship and insufficient protection of user rights.

In conclusion, social media has emerged as a potent instrument for political activism and social movements, giving voice to previously unheard communities and galvanizing support for change. Social media presents many opportunities for communication and collaboration. Still, users and institutions must be conscious of the risks and limitations of these tools to promote their responsible and productive usage.

The Potential Privacy Concerns Raised by Social Media Use and Data Collection Practices

With billions of users each day on sites like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram, social media has ingrained itself into every aspect of our lives. While these platforms offer a straightforward method to communicate with others and exchange information, they also raise significant concerns over data collecting and privacy. This article will examine the possible privacy issues posed by social media use and data-gathering techniques.

Data Collection and Sharing

The gathering and sharing of personal data are significant privacy issues brought up by social media use. Social networking sites gather user data, including details about their relationships, hobbies, and routines. This information is made available to third-party businesses for various uses, such as marketing and advertising. This can lead to serious concerns about who has access to and uses our personal information.

Lack of Control Over Personal Information

The absence of user control over personal information is a significant privacy issue brought up by social media usage. Social media makes it challenging to limit who has access to and how data is utilized once it has been posted. Sensitive information may end up being extensively disseminated and may be used maliciously as a result.

Personalized Marketing

Social media companies utilize the information they gather about users to target them with adverts relevant to their interests and usage patterns. Although this could be useful, it might also cause consumers to worry about their privacy since they might feel that their personal information is being used without their permission. Furthermore, there are issues with the integrity of the data being used to target users and the possibility of prejudice based on individual traits.

Government Surveillance

Using social media might spark worries about government surveillance. There are significant concerns regarding privacy and free expression when governments in some nations utilize social media platforms to follow and monitor residents.

In conclusion, social media use raises significant concerns regarding data collecting and privacy. While these platforms make it easy to interact with people and exchange information, they also gather a lot of personal information, which raises questions about who may access it and how it will be used. Users should be aware of these privacy issues and take precautions to safeguard their personal information, such as exercising caution when choosing what details to disclose on social media and keeping their information sharing with other firms to a minimum.

The Ethical and Privacy Concerns Surrounding Social Media Use And Data Collection

Our use of social media to communicate with loved ones, acquire information, and even conduct business has become a crucial part of our everyday lives. The extensive use of social media does, however, raise some ethical and privacy issues that must be resolved. The influence of social media use and data collecting on user rights, the accountability of social media businesses, and the need for improved regulation are all topics that will be covered in this article.

Effect on Individual Privacy:

Social networking sites gather tons of personal data from their users, including delicate information like search history, location data, and even health data. Each user's detailed profile may be created with this data and sold to advertising or used for other reasons. Concerns regarding the privacy of personal information might arise because social media businesses can use this data to target users with customized adverts.

Additionally, individuals might need to know how much their personal information is being gathered and exploited. Data breaches or the unauthorized sharing of personal information with other parties may result in instances where sensitive information is exposed. Users should be aware of the privacy rules of social media firms and take precautions to secure their data.

Responsibility of Social Media Companies:

Social media firms should ensure that they responsibly and ethically gather and use user information. This entails establishing strong security measures to safeguard sensitive information and ensuring users are informed of what information is being collected and how it is used.

Many social media businesses, nevertheless, have come under fire for not upholding these obligations. For instance, the Cambridge Analytica incident highlighted how Facebook users' personal information was exploited for political objectives without their knowledge. This demonstrates the necessity of social media corporations being held responsible for their deeds and ensuring that they are safeguarding the security and privacy of their users.

Better Regulation Is Needed

There is a need for tighter regulation in this field, given the effect, social media has on individual privacy as well as the obligations of social media firms. The creation of laws and regulations that ensure social media companies are gathering and using user information ethically and responsibly, as well as making sure users are aware of their rights and have the ability to control the information that is being collected about them, are all part of this.

Additionally, legislation should ensure that social media businesses are held responsible for their behavior, for example, by levying fines for data breaches or the unauthorized use of personal data. This will provide social media businesses with a significant incentive to prioritize their users' privacy and security and ensure they are upholding their obligations.

In conclusion, social media has fundamentally changed how we engage and communicate with one another, but this increased convenience also raises several ethical and privacy issues. Essential concerns that need to be addressed include the effect of social media on individual privacy, the accountability of social media businesses, and the requirement for greater regulation to safeguard user rights. We can make everyone's online experience safer and more secure by looking more closely at these issues.

In conclusion, social media is a complex and multifaceted topic that has recently captured the world's attention. With its ever-growing influence on our lives, it's no surprise that it has become a popular subject for students to explore in their writing. Whether you are writing an argumentative essay on the impact of social media on privacy, a persuasive essay on the role of social media in politics, or a descriptive essay on the changes social media has brought to the way we communicate, there are countless angles to approach this subject.

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Office of the Surgeon General (OSG). Social Media and Youth Mental Health: The U.S. Surgeon General’s Advisory [Internet]. Washington (DC): US Department of Health and Human Services; 2023.

Social Media and Youth Mental Health: The U.S. Surgeon General’s Advisory [Internet].

Social media has both positive and negative impacts on children and adolescents.

The influence of social media on youth mental health is shaped by many complex factors, including, but not limited to, the amount of time children and adolescents spend on platforms, the type of content they consume or are otherwise exposed to, the activities and interactions social media affords, and the degree to which it disrupts activities that are essential for health like sleep and physical activity. 6 Importantly, different children and adolescents are affected by social media in different ways, based on their individual strengths and vulnerabilities, and based on cultural, historical, and socio-economic factors. 7 , 8 There is broad agreement among the scientific community that social media has the potential to both benefit and harm children and adolescents. 6 , 9

Brain development is a critical factor to consider when assessing the risk for harm. Adolescents, ages 10 to 19, are undergoing a highly sensitive period of brain development. 10 , 11 This is a period when risk-taking behaviors reach their peak, when well-being experiences the greatest fluctuations, and when mental health challenges such as depression typically emerge. 12 , 13 , 14 Furthermore, in early adolescence, when identities and sense of self-worth are forming, brain development is especially susceptible to social pressures, peer opinions, and peer comparison. 11 , 13 Frequent social media use may be associated with distinct changes in the developing brain in the amygdala (important for emotional learning and behavior) and the prefrontal cortex (important for impulse control, emotional regulation, and moderating social behavior), and could increase sensitivity to social rewards and punishments. 15 , 16 As such, adolescents may experience heightened emotional sensitivity to the communicative and interactive nature of social media. 16 Adolescent social media use is predictive of a subsequent decrease in life satisfaction for certain developmental stages including for girls 11–13 years old and boys 14–15 years old. 17 Because adolescence is a vulnerable period of brain development, social media exposure during this period warrants additional scrutiny.

• The Potential Benefits of Social Media Use Among Children and Adolescents

Social media can provide benefits for some youth by providing positive community and connection with others who share identities, abilities, and interests. It can provide access to important information and create a space for self-expression. 9 The ability to form and maintain friendships online and develop social connections are among the positive effects of social media use for youth. 18 , 19 These relationships can afford opportunities to have positive interactions with more diverse peer groups than are available to them offline and can provide important social support to youth. 18 The buffering effects against stress that online social support from peers may provide can be especially important for youth who are often marginalized, including racial, ethnic, and sexual and gender minorities. 20 , 21 , 22 For example, studies have shown that social media may support the mental health and well-being of lesbian, gay, bisexual, asexual, transgender, queer, intersex and other youths by enabling peer connection, identity development and management, and social support. 23 Seven out of ten adolescent girls of color report encountering positive or identity-affirming content related to race across social media platforms. 24 A majority of adolescents report that social media helps them feel more accepted (58%), like they have people who can support them through tough times (67%), like they have a place to show their creative side (71%), and more connected to what’s going on in their friends’ lives (80%). 25 In addition, research suggests that social media-based and other digitally-based mental health interventions may also be helpful for some children and adolescents by promoting help-seeking behaviors and serving as a gateway to initiating mental health care. 8 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29

• The Potential Harms of Social Media Use Among Children and Adolescents

Over the last decade, evidence has emerged identifying reasons for concern about the potential negative impact of social media on children and adolescents.

A longitudinal cohort study of U.S. adolescents aged 12–15 (n=6,595) that adjusted for baseline mental health status found that adolescents who spent more than 3 hours per day on social media faced double the risk of experiencing poor mental health outcomes including symptoms of depression and anxiety. 30

As of 2021, 8th and 10th graders now spend an average of 3.5 hours per day on social media. 31 In a unique natural experiment that leveraged the staggered introduction of a social media platform across U.S. colleges, the roll-out of the platform was associated with an increase in depression (9% over baseline) and anxiety (12% over baseline) among college-aged youth (n = 359,827 observations). 32 The study’s co-author also noted that when applied across the entirety of the U.S. college population, the introduction of the social media platform may have contributed to more than 300,000 new cases of depression. 32 , 33 If such sizable effects occurred in college-aged youth, these findings raise serious concerns about the risk of harm from social media exposure for children and adolescents who are at a more vulnerable stage of brain development.

Limits on the use of social media have resulted in mental health benefits for young adults and adults. A small, randomized controlled trial in college-aged youth found that limiting social media use to 30 minutes daily over three weeks led to significant improvements in depression severity. 34 This effect was particularly large for those with high baseline levels of depression who saw an improvement in depression scores by more than 35%. 35 Another randomized controlled trial among young adults and adults found that deactivation of a social media platform for four weeks improved subjective well-being (i.e., self-reported happiness, life satisfaction, depression, and anxiety) by about 25–40% of the effect of psychological interventions like self-help therapy, group training, and individual therapy. 36

In addition to these recent studies, correlational research on associations between social media use and mental health has indicated reason for concern and further investigation. These studies point to a higher relative concern of harm in adolescent girls and those already experiencing poor mental health, 37 , 38 , 39 as well as for particular health outcomes like cyberbullying-related depression, 40 body image and disordered eating behaviors, 41 and poor sleep quality linked to social media use. 42 For example, a study conducted among 14-year-olds (n = 10,904) found that greater social media use predicted poor sleep, online harassment, poor body image, low self-esteem, and higher depressive symptom scores with a larger association for girls than boys. 43 A majority of parents of adolescents say they are somewhat, very, or extremely worried that their child’s use of social media could lead to problems with anxiety or depression (53%), lower self-esteem (54%), being harassed or bullied by others (54%), feeling pressured to act a certain way (59%), and exposure to explicit content (71%). 44

Unless otherwise noted in the text, all material appearing in this work is in the public domain and may be reproduced without permission. Citation of the source is appreciated.

• Cite this Page Office of the Surgeon General (OSG). Social Media and Youth Mental Health: The U.S. Surgeon General’s Advisory [Internet]. Washington (DC): US Department of Health and Human Services; 2023. Social Media Has Both Positive and Negative Impacts on Children and Adolescents.
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Positive & Negative Effects of Social Media on Teens Essay

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Introduction

Positive effects of social media, negative effects of social media.

In the twenty-first century, many teenagers spend their free time on social networks, which are an integral part of human life today. Scientists are still arguing about the harm and benefits of social media on teenagers. The environment of modern man, in which socialization takes place, has changed significantly. Nowadays, the younger generation spends more time on social networks.

For teenagers, the social network has become a tool for self-expression. Communication is no longer limited to a certain circle of people with whom the teenager contacts physically. Therefore, the topic raises a serious problem: the socialization of a teenager under the influence of the Internet environment. This paper reveals the positive and negative aspects of the influence of social networks on the younger generation.

Self-Development

Social networks have everything a teenager needs for self-development. Many groups are directly related to studying. In order not to miss new publications, it is enough to enable notifications. The variety of groups in social networks is so great that every teenager will be able to find something for themselves, ranging from culinary recipes to international politics.

There is also a large database of videos and music files on social networks, among which one can find rare or necessary book copies. On the web, teenagers can get information that is significant for education. For example, Facebook is the largest repository of audio, video, and photo materials on many academic subjects that can be listened to, viewed, and downloaded (Nisar et al., 2019). In addition, a social network is a quick transfer or dissemination of information about the school, class, events, and student news.

The network provides an excellent opportunity to promote oneself as a person. Teenagers can try to start their own business or engage in blogging. They can also write books or stories on social networks, try to earn money, or realize their strengths in SMM (Pouwels et al., 2021). Social networks attract with their ability to express themselves, to acquaint everyone with their talents, hobbies, and achievements. Some post the results of their creativity – poems, songs, music, and videos.

Finding Friends

Communication has been simplified to the maximum level; nowadays, the huge distance between people is no longer a hindrance to their communication. It is enough to have a computer or laptop connected to the Internet, and special software that makes it possible to communicate, hear and see each other. Therefore, due to social networks, teenagers can stay in touch with friends who live at a great distance. There is a video call function that only requires the Internet. Teenagers can chat with friends without spending money on the balance.

In social networks, one can easily find people: when registering on a social network, the user provides their first and last name, as well as other data – age, educational institutions, contact phone numbers. This allows teenagers to find any person in a matter of seconds, provided that they have provided reliable information about themselves. However, social networks help not only to be aware of the lives of friends, acquaintances, and classmates.

Teenagers can also look for like-minded people online (Nisar et al., 2019). There are many important groups where people can share their accumulated experience or their views on life. The network makes it possible to find friends, familiar classmates, and insecure teenagers to feel in demand (Pouwels et al., 2021). It makes new acquaintances without fear that there may be nothing to talk about with this person in the future. By joining interest groups, a teenager is not afraid that they might be rejected.

The ability to find friends is also associated with psychological comfort. Teenagers can say much more online than in real life, and not feel uncomfortable at the same time: they have time to formulate thoughts more clearly and express them most accurately (Pouwels et al., 2021). The Internet has the opportunity to follow the life of idols, to know what they are doing and what new things have happened to them. Friends can also watch the user, so one does not need to tell everyone about an important event, it is enough to share it on social networks. Thus, teenagers have the opportunity to realize themselves in the eyes of friends and acquaintances.

Physical & Mental Health

The properties of social networks have a negative impact when a teenager uses them non-stop. The flow of news, the change of emotions, impressions, and the solution of multi-level tasks lead to fatigue and harm to health. The radiation of the monitor has a detrimental effect on the retina of the eyes (Byrne et al., 2018). Many teenagers do not understand that most of the visitors of social networks embellish their reality. Perceiving the virtual image as reality, an inferiority complex is created. This perception affects self-esteem and harms the psyche. As a result, the body gets stressed, and the teenager is at risk of depression.

A constant presence in social networks develops the habit of receiving information in portions of the brain. Several processes are going on at the same time: listening to music, viewing photos, writing comments, and reading news. As a result, there is a decrease in the concentration of attention, and the teenager’s body is harmed (Charoensukmongkol, 2018). The term hyperactivity, well-known in psychology, accurately defines the state of a teenager. They cannot concentrate on one task, useful material is not assimilated, and the effectiveness of education decreases.

Social networks have a significant impact on the psyche of a teenager. A person needs constant recognition as a person for harmonious development. Before the advent of social networks, people had to constantly work on themselves to prove their worth. With the appearance of social media, everything has become simpler: it is enough to post a photo or video and one can collect likes. Having received approval on social networks, the user experiences a kind of euphoria (Byrne et al., 2018). Gradually, the teenager develops an addiction: the first thing their morning starts with is viewing their account. If there is free time during the day, they also constantly visit their page, spending too much time online.

Communication

Teenagers want to use easy ways to have fun, interaction in social networks is reduced to affixing likes, and correspondence is saturated with emoticons and abbreviations. For example, a story about one’s mood shortens to sending a smiley face. This way of communication becomes a habit, becomes the norm, and is used in everyday life. It is difficult for active visitors of social networks to rebuild their relationships into generally accepted forms (Szabla & Blommaert, 2020). This becomes an obstacle to a full-fledged dialogue, since people who are far from computer slang hardly understand such a narrative.

The presentation of information on the Internet occurs in such a way that, having the intention to view the weather forecast, the user is forced to close pop-up windows with advertisements, news blocks, or links to various sites. Many teenagers cannot cope with this task: all this attracts their attention and distracts them from the search (Charoensukmongkol, 2018). A teenager receives a stream of unnecessary information. If they do not control this process and do not block the excess, the brain is overloaded, fatigue accumulates, irritation and the body is harmed.

By texting, people lose the skills of real communication; in social networks, words and feelings that are transmitted through personal contact lose their meaning. It becomes easy to hide experiences or fake emotions (Szabla & Blommaert, 2020). A teenager addicted to social networks misjudges people and does not feel responsible. They become capable of insulting an opponent and causing harm without experiencing any remorse or empathy.

With the development of Internet technologies, the world has changed a lot, and it also changed the way of thinking of young people. Undoubtedly, it is possible to highlight numerous advantages of social networks. These are freely available groups where teenagers can find like-minded people, keep up to date with the latest developments, find a new hobby, develop their skills in some endeavor or relax by browsing interesting communities. However, social networks not only have a positive impact on a teenager but can also cause harm. It is associated with the distortion of reality in social networks, information overload, and a change like live communication. It is impossible to eliminate the negative impact of the use of social networks, however, by maintaining a balance, they can be minimized.

Byrne, E., Vessey, J. A., & Pfeifer, L. (2018). Cyberbullying and social media: Information and interventions for school nurses working with victims, students, and families. The Journal of School Nursing, 34 (1), 28-39.

Charoensukmongkol, P. (2018). The impact of social media on social comparison and envy in teenagers: The moderating role of the parent comparing children and in-group competition among friends. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27 (3), 69-79.

Nisar, T. M., Prabhakar, G., & Strakova, L. (2019). Social media information benefits, knowledge management and smart organizations. Journal of Business Research, 94 (7), 264-272.

Pouwels, J. L., Valkenburg, P. M., Beyens, I., Driel, I. I., & Keijsers, L. (2021). Some socially poor but also some socially rich adolescents feel closer to their friends after using social media. Scientific Reports, 11 (1), 9-13.

Szabla, M., & Blommaert, J. (2020). Does context really collapse in social media interaction? Applied Linguistics Review, 11 (2), 251-279.

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When Social Media and Cellphones Are Lifelines to Kids Who Feel Different

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Researchers, policymakers, and district leaders alike have raised serious concerns about how social media and cellphones are negatively affecting teens’ social skills and mental health.

But teens have a more nuanced view. A spring survey of 1,056 high-school-age teens by the EdWeek Research Center found them nearly evenly divided on whether social media’s impact on their mental health and well-being had been positive, neutral, or negative. And the kids surveyed listed a range of benefits to being on social media, including developing positive friendships, hobbies, creative skills, and knowledge of other cultures and people. Twenty-nine percent said social media makes them feel less isolated and alone.

There are many teens, especially in smaller schools and communities, who struggle to find peers who they can connect with in school, says Tai Stephan, 18, who recently graduated from Lake Norman Charter School in Huntersville, N.C. For them, social media can be a lifeline. That was the case for Stephan, who is biracial.

For a series of conversations with three teenagers about what the adults in their schools most misunderstand about their technology use, Education Week talked with Stephan. (You can read the other two interviews in this series here and here .)

This conversation has been edited for length and clarity.

Identify formation is a big part of being a teen. How has social media helped form your identity?

I go to a smaller high school and there, it is a little bit hard to find people like me. I am a part of a smaller demographic there in many ways. So, social media has really helped to make me feel like I’m not alone because I’m able to witness real lives—whether it’s through movies, clips, videos. I witness other people who look and talk and act like me.

I'd like to think if we were stripped of all social media right now, we'd realize that, yes, there are some benefits but we're losing so much.

And it has helped me establish a sort of confidence, because I recognize that I might not have anyone that I can really relate to heavily in my physical world, but as soon as I go onto the social media apps, I find an entire universe of individuals who I feel like look and act like me. So that has been a huge positive thing.

I’m able to have really amazing communities and see amazing people who I really feel like connect with me. And it’s helped reaffirm my own identity and it helps establish myself in the physical world through the virtual world.

What do you think are the biggest misconceptions the adults in your school have about teens’ social media use?

The biggest misconception is that [social media] only creates negative scenarios, or those negative scenarios outweigh the positive scenarios. I’d like to think if we were stripped of all social media right now, we’d realize that, yes, there are some benefits but we’re losing so much.

Social media has also been the outlet to create foundations for some of the most important interactions that teenagers have with each other. Going home from school, I know I have a few friends who don’t necessarily feel like they have a place within schools, but then go home, get on their computer and interact with people who they [can relate to].

[Social media] actually creates and cultivates some of the most diverse and accepting spaces that teenagers witness.

The misconception about social media is that it destroys communities and it’s too controversial, it’s too negative. And I think there’s not as much focus on the fact that it actually creates and cultivates some of the most diverse and accepting spaces that teenagers witness. There are so many teenagers who come from rural areas, more rural than myself. And this is the only place that they have to really find their self in their own identity and voice.

Do you feel cellphones, and the constant access they give you to social media and your peers, are good or bad for your well-being?

It has its positives and it has its negatives, and I feel like the constant access can sometimes be a little bit more negative. I remember just the other day, I was looking on my Instagram and I realized I lost one follower and I was like, oh my gosh, this is the end of the world . Who did I possibly lose a relationship with?

I feel like the [constant] access and the inability to really look away from our screens, the buzzing, the sounds, it can really stimulate some anxious behavior for sure that can control what we do in the physical world and really shape our insecurities.

What should adults understand to help teens develop healthier uses of social media?

We don’t really know how to respond to social media, and I feel like we’re kind of just given phones as kids, especially nowadays, we’re just given this device and we don’t really understand the conditions of the device.

We have so many misconceptions about social media with such a lack of resources or classes that talk about how we can use it to really create a benefit. We assume certain things: a loss of followers, not getting enough views, and we blame it on ourselves because we don’t have the resources to really properly evaluate how social media affects different people.

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Home — Essay Samples — Sociology — Social Media — Negative Effects Of Social Media: Relationships And Communication

Negative Effects of Social Media: Relationships and Communication

• Categories: Effects of Social Media Negative Impact of Technology Social Media

About this sample

Words: 904 |

Published: Mar 14, 2019

Words: 904 | Pages: 2 | 5 min read

A Good Hook Examples for “Why Social Media is Bad” Essay

• A Modern Dilemma: In an era dominated by likes, shares, and filters, have you ever paused to consider the darker side of social media? Join me as we unveil the reasons why this digital phenomenon may be more harmful than we realize.
• An Eye-Opening Statistic: Did you know that the average person spends nearly two and a half hours on social media every day? Let’s dive into the implications of this staggering statistic and why it’s cause for concern.
• A Thought-Provoking Quote: Plato once warned, “At the touch of love, everyone becomes a poet.” But in the age of social media, is the touch of love being replaced by the click of a button? Explore with me how these platforms can dilute genuine human connections.
• A Personal Awakening: As someone who has experienced the negative effects of social media firsthand, I invite you to join me in reflecting on the ways in which these platforms may be undermining our mental health, relationships, and overall well-being.
• A Societal Wake-Up Call: Social media is no longer just a personal choice; it’s a societal force. Discover how it has reshaped our culture, influenced our behaviors, and potentially posed a threat to the fabric of our society.

Works Cited

• Buunk, B. P., & Dijkstra, P. (2017). Gender differences in jealousy: Men are more jealous about physical infidelity than emotional infidelity. Evolutionary Psychology, 15(1), 1474704916680157.
• Eslit, N. (2017, May 5). Effects of social media on communication skills. TechJury. https://techjury.net/blog/effects-of-social-media-on-communication-skills/
• Phoon, A. (2017, March 8). Social media is bad for communication skills and replaces need for human interaction. Medium. https://medium.com/@alphoenix/social-media-is-bad-for-communication-skills-and-replaces-need-for-human-interaction-d78b1c2d1e1b
• Wikerson, M. (2017). The impact of social media on relationships. Marshall Digital Scholar, 1. https://mds.marshall.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1003&context=student_scholarship
• Wu, A. M. S., Cheung, V. I., & Ku, L. (2013). Continual and problematic internet use as predictors of low self-esteem, depression, and suicidal ideation among Chinese adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 52(2), S122-S127.
• Wu, Y. Q., Li, J., & Li, X. (2020). Cyberbullying victimization and depressive symptoms: The mediating role of resilience and the moderating role of social support in Chinese adolescents. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 2071.
• Zhang, S., Li, X., Chen, H., & Liu, Y. (2017). A longitudinal study of the relationship between problematic internet use and subjective well-being among college students. Social Indicators Research, 133(1), 345-355.

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10 Negative Effects Of Social Media

Everyone is immensely involved in social media, whether they are adults or kids.  It has become an integral part of everyone’s lives. Social media has both negative and positive effects on anyone’s lives, especially on students, it is a game changer as it not only help them in their academics but also strengthens their mind and makes them aware of what is happening worldwide. Even, there are drawbacks of excessive use of social media.  

Parents must pay close attention to their children as they are often distracted from their schoolwork since they are actively involved in social media. Hence, this detailed blog aims to share the 10 negative effects of social media on students.

What Is The Importance Of Social Media In Students’ Lives? 

Social media platforms like Instagram, Facebook, Twitter, YouTube etc are huge platforms that allow students to discover many things and help them connect with zillions of people around the globe. As we all know, social media plays an important role in everybody’s life since it helps humans stay connected with one another. Nowadays kids are so involved in social platforms that they are not fully aware of its negative effects and how badly it can affect their studies. 

10 Negative Effects Of Social Media On Students

Social media has both positive and negative impacts on students in many ways.  I have listed 10 negative effects of social media on students that every parent should pay attention to help their child before indulging them in social media. 

1. Cyberbullying 

Cyberbullying is one of the major concerns worldwide that happens on social media a lot to manipulate, humiliate and cause harm to another person online. It has become the reason students are getting mentally tortured and emotionally unwell. Hence, it is imperative for the parent to teach their child not to bully anyone in any way. 

2. Academic Distraction

Excessive involvement in social media diverts students from their academics. They spend their long hours on social media which causes a lack of time management in their studies and they don’t even focus on their studies. Students get to know more on social media platforms but it is also a huge distraction for their academics. 

3. Excessive Addiction 

Involvement in social media can make students addicted. Addiction to social media can be very dangerous and harmful for young minds. Parents must be attentive towards their kids, they shouldn’t let their children become addicted.

4.  Mood Disorders

Regular use of social media can lead to an increase in the level of mood disorders in students as it causes dissatisfaction and insecurity among students. 

5. Sleeping Deprivation

One of the major negative effects of social media is that students do not get as much sleep as they need. Lack of sleep directly affects mental and emotional health. Healthy sleep is mandatory, especially for students to maintain good health.       

6.  Obscene Images

It’s very obvious if someone is using social media and suddenly an obscene image appears which a student shouldn’t be seeing. 

 7. Privacy Issues

Social media not only entertain us but also gather our sensitive data and personal information. Teach your kid not to share any personal information with any strangers online. It can be harmful as someone can use personal or sensitive information against them. 

8. Lacking self-confidence 

Social media has affected students’ lives a lot in many ways. Nowadays, students are actively engaged in social media and see many influencers who attract them. They start to compare their lives to those of social media influencers which forms a lack of self-confidence. 

9.  Spreading False Information

We all know, that social media is a huge platform that not only shares informative news but also spreads rumours, misinformation and lies about certain incidents or a person. Spreading wrong information about someone is completely wrong, it can affect them mentally or emotionally. 

10. Health Issues 

Many students are not fully aware of the fact that social media affects physical health a lot. Instead of playing outside students are so much into social media that they mostly waste their time playing online games which is not good for their mental health as well as physical health.   

Above are the 10 negative effects of social media on students that they need to know. It’s important for students to learn and set their boundaries to engage in social media platforms. Also, parents must teach the both negative and positive effects of social media to students. 

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• Published: 02 May 2024

Effectiveness of social media-assisted course on learning self-efficacy

• Jiaying Hu 1 ,
• Yicheng Lai 2 &
• Xiuhua Yi 3  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  10112 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Human behaviour

The social media platform and the information dissemination revolution have changed the thinking, needs, and methods of students, bringing development opportunities and challenges to higher education. This paper introduces social media into the classroom and uses quantitative analysis to investigate the relation between design college students’ learning self-efficacy and social media for design students, aiming to determine the effectiveness of social media platforms on self-efficacy. This study is conducted on university students in design media courses and is quasi-experimental, using a randomized pre-test and post-test control group design. The study participants are 73 second-year design undergraduates. Independent samples t-tests showed that the network interaction factors of social media had a significant impact on college students learning self-efficacy. The use of social media has a significant positive predictive effect on all dimensions of learning self-efficacy. Our analysis suggests that using the advantages and value of online social platforms, weakening the disadvantages of the network, scientifically using online learning resources, and combining traditional classrooms with the Internet can improve students' learning self-efficacy.

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Introduction.

Social media is a way of sharing information, ideas, and opinions with others one. It can be used to create relationships between people and businesses. Social media has changed the communication way, it’s no longer just about talking face to face but also using a digital platform such as Facebook or Twitter. Today, social media is becoming increasingly popular in everyone's lives, including students and researchers 1 . Social media provides many opportunities for learners to publish their work globally, bringing many benefits to teaching and learning. The publication of students' work online has led to a more positive attitude towards learning and increased achievement and motivation. Other studies report that student online publications or work promote reflection on personal growth and development and provide opportunities for students to imagine more clearly the purpose of their work 2 . In addition, learning environments that include student publications allow students to examine issues differently, create new connections, and ultimately form new entities that can be shared globally 3 , 4 .

Learning self-efficacy is a belief that you can learn something new. It comes from the Latin word “self” and “efficax” which means efficient or effective. Self-efficacy is based on your beliefs about yourself, how capable you are to learn something new, and your ability to use what you have learned in real-life situations. This concept was first introduced by Bandura (1977), who studied the effects of social reinforcement on children’s learning behavior. He found that when children were rewarded for their efforts they would persist longer at tasks that they did not like or had low interest in doing. Social media, a ubiquitous force in today's digital age, has revolutionized the way people interact and share information. With the rise of social media platforms, individuals now have access to a wealth of online resources that can enhance their learning capabilities. This access to information and communication has also reshaped the way students approach their studies, potentially impacting their learning self-efficacy. Understanding the role of social media in shaping students' learning self-efficacy is crucial in providing effective educational strategies that promote healthy learning and development 5 . Unfortunately, the learning curve for the associated metadata base modeling methodologies and their corresponding computer-aided software engineering (CASE) tools have made it difficult for students to grasp. Addressing this learning issue examined the effect of this MLS on the self-efficacy of learning these topics 6 . Bates et al. 7 hypothesize a mediated model in which a set of antecedent variables influenced students’ online learning self-efficacy which, in turn, affected student outcome expectations, mastery perceptions, and the hours spent per week using online learning technology to complete learning assignments for university courses. Shen et al. 8 through exploratory factor analysis identifies five dimensions of online learning self-efficacy: (a) self-efficacy to complete an online course (b) self-efficacy to interact socially with classmates (c) self-efficacy to handle tools in a Course Management System (CMS) (d) self-efficacy to interact with instructors in an online course, and (e) self-efficacy to interact with classmates for academic purposes. Chiu 9 established a model for analyzing the mediating effect that learning self-efficacy and social self-efficacy have on the relationship between university students’ perceived life stress and smartphone addiction. Kim et al. 10 study was conducted to examine the influence of learning efficacy on nursing students' self-confidence. The objective of Paciello et al. 11 was to identify self-efficacy configurations in different domains (i.e., emotional, social, and self-regulated learning) in a sample of university students using a person-centered approach. The role of university students’ various conceptions of learning in their academic self-efficacy in the domain of physics is initially explored 12 . Kumar et al. 13 investigated factors predicting students’ behavioral intentions towards the continuous use of mobile learning. Other influential work includes 14 .

Many studies have focused on social networking tools such as Facebook and MySpace 15 , 16 . Teachers are concerned that the setup and use of social media apps take up too much of their time, may have plagiarism and privacy issues, and contribute little to actual student learning outcomes; they often consider them redundant or simply not conducive to better learning outcomes 17 . Cao et al. 18 proposed that the central questions in addressing the positive and negative pitfalls of social media on teaching and learning are whether the use of social media in teaching and learning enhances educational effectiveness, and what motivates university teachers to use social media in teaching and learning. Maloney et al. 3 argued that social media can further improve the higher education teaching and learning environment, where students no longer access social media to access course information. Many studies in the past have shown that the use of modern IT in the classroom has increased over the past few years; however, it is still limited mainly to content-driven use, such as accessing course materials, so with the emergence of social media in students’ everyday lives 2 , we need to focus on developing students’ learning self-efficacy so that they can This will enable students to 'turn the tables and learn to learn on their own. Learning self-efficacy is considered an important concept that has a powerful impact on learning outcomes 19 , 20 .

Self-efficacy for learning is vital in teaching students to learn and develop healthily and increasing students' beliefs in the learning process 21 . However, previous studies on social media platforms such as Twitter and Weibo as curriculum support tools have not been further substantiated or analyzed in detail. In addition, the relationship between social media, higher education, and learning self-efficacy has not yet been fully explored by researchers in China. Our research aims to fill this gap in the topic. Our study explored the impact of social media on the learning self-efficacy of Chinese college students. Therefore, it is essential to explore the impact of teachers' use of social media to support teaching and learning on students' learning self-efficacy. Based on educational theory and methodological practice, this study designed a teaching experiment using social media to promote learning self-efficacy by posting an assignment for post-course work on online media to explore the actual impact of social media on university students’ learning self-efficacy. This study examines the impact of a social media-assisted course on university students' learning self-efficacy to explore the positive impact of a social media-assisted course.

Theoretical background

• Social media

Social media has different definitions. Mayfield (2013) first introduced the concept of social media in his book-what is social media? The author summarized the six characteristics of social media: openness, participation, dialogue, communication, interaction, and communication. Mayfield 22 shows that social media is a kind of new media. Its uniqueness is that it can give users great space and freedom to participate in the communication process. Jen (2020) also suggested that the distinguishing feature of social media is that it is “aggregated”. Social media provides users with an interactive service to control their data and information and collaborate and share information 2 . Social media offers opportunities for students to build knowledge and helps them actively create and share information 23 . Millennial students are entering higher education institutions and are accustomed to accessing and using data from the Internet. These individuals go online daily for educational or recreational purposes. Social media is becoming increasingly popular in the lives of everyone, including students and researchers 1 . A previous study has shown that millennials use the Internet as their first source of information and Google as their first choice for finding educational and personal information 24 . Similarly, many institutions encourage teachers to adopt social media applications 25 . Faculty members have also embraced social media applications for personal, professional, and pedagogical purposes 17 .

Social networks allow one to create a personal profile and build various networks that connect him/her to family, friends, and other colleagues. Users use these sites to stay in touch with their friends, make plans, make new friends, or connect with someone online. Therefore, extending this concept, these sites can establish academic connections or promote cooperation and collaboration in higher education classrooms 2 . This study defines social media as an interactive community of users' information sharing and social activities built on the technology of the Internet. Because the concept of social media is broad, its connotations are consistent. Research shows that Meaning and Linking are the two key elements that make up social media existence. Users and individual media outlets generate social media content and use it as a platform to get it out there. Social media distribution is based on social relationships and has a better platform for personal information and relationship management systems. Examples of social media applications include Facebook, Twitter, MySpace, YouTube, Flickr, Skype, Wiki, blogs, Delicious, Second Life, open online course sites, SMS, online games, mobile applications, and more 18 . Ajjan and Hartshorne 2 investigated the intentions of 136 faculty members at a US university to adopt Web 2.0 technologies as tools in their courses. They found that integrating Web 2.0 technologies into the classroom learning environment effectively increased student satisfaction with the course and improved their learning and writing skills. His research focused on improving the perceived usefulness, ease of use, compatibility of Web 2.0 applications, and instructor self-efficacy. The social computing impact of formal education and training and informal learning communities suggested that learning web 2.0 helps users to acquire critical competencies, and promotes technological, pedagogical, and organizational innovation, arguing that social media has a variety of learning content 26 . Users can post digital content online, enabling learners to tap into tacit knowledge while supporting collaboration between learners and teachers. Cao and Hong 27 investigated the antecedents and consequences of social media use in teaching among 249 full-time and part-time faculty members, who reported that the factors for using social media in teaching included personal social media engagement and readiness, external pressures; expected benefits; and perceived risks. The types of Innovators, Early adopters, Early majority, Late majority, Laggards, and objectors. Cao et al. 18 studied the educational effectiveness of 168 teachers' use of social media in university teaching. Their findings suggest that social media use has a positive impact on student learning outcomes and satisfaction. Their research model provides educators with ideas on using social media in the education classroom to improve student performance. Maqableh et al. 28 investigated the use of social networking sites by 366 undergraduate students, and they found that weekly use of social networking sites had a significant impact on student's academic performance and that using social networking sites had a significant impact on improving students' effective time management, and awareness of multitasking. All of the above studies indicate the researcher’s research on social media aids in teaching and learning. All of these studies indicate the positive impact of social media on teaching and learning.

• Learning self-efficacy

For the definition of concepts related to learning self-efficacy, scholars have mainly drawn on the idea proposed by Bandura 29 that defines self-efficacy as “the degree to which people feel confident in their ability to use the skills they possess to perform a task”. Self-efficacy is an assessment of a learner’s confidence in his or her ability to use the skills he or she possesses to complete a learning task and is a subjective judgment and feeling about the individual’s ability to control his or her learning behavior and performance 30 . Liu 31 has defined self-efficacy as the belief’s individuals hold about their motivation to act, cognitive ability, and ability to perform to achieve their goals, showing the individual's evaluation and judgment of their abilities. Zhang (2015) showed that learning efficacy is regarded as the degree of belief and confidence that expresses the success of learning. Yan 32 showed the extent to which learning self-efficacy is viewed as an individual. Pan 33 suggested that learning self-efficacy in an online learning environment is a belief that reflects the learner's ability to succeed in the online learning process. Kang 34 believed that learning self-efficacy is the learner's confidence and belief in his or her ability to complete a learning task. Huang 35 considered self-efficacy as an individual’s self-assessment of his or her ability to complete a particular task or perform a specific behavior and the degree of confidence in one’s ability to achieve a specific goal. Kong 36 defined learning self-efficacy as an individual’s judgment of one’s ability to complete academic tasks.

Based on the above analysis, we found that scholars' focus on learning self-efficacy is on learning behavioral efficacy and learning ability efficacy, so this study divides learning self-efficacy into learning behavioral efficacy and learning ability efficacy for further analysis and research 37 , 38 . Search the CNKI database and ProQuest Dissertations for keywords such as “design students’ learning self-efficacy”, “design classroom self-efficacy”, “design learning self-efficacy”, and other keywords. There are few relevant pieces of literature about design majors. Qiu 39 showed that mobile learning-assisted classroom teaching can control the source of self-efficacy from many aspects, thereby improving students’ sense of learning efficacy and helping middle and lower-level students improve their sense of learning efficacy from all dimensions. Yin and Xu 40 argued that the three elements of the network environment—“learning content”, “learning support”, and “social structure of learning”—all have an impact on university students’ learning self-efficacy. Duo et al. 41 recommend that learning activities based on the mobile network learning community increase the trust between students and the sense of belonging in the learning community, promote mutual communication and collaboration between students, and encourage each other to stimulate their learning motivation. In the context of social media applications, self-efficacy refers to the level of confidence that teachers can successfully use social media applications in the classroom 18 . Researchers have found that self-efficacy is related to social media applications 42 . Students had positive experiences with social media applications through content enhancement, creativity experiences, connectivity enrichment, and collaborative engagement 26 . Students who wish to communicate with their tutors in real-time find social media tools such as web pages, blogs, and virtual interactions very satisfying 27 . Overall, students report their enjoyment of different learning processes through social media applications; simultaneously, they show satisfactory tangible achievement of tangible learning outcomes 18 . According to Bandura's 'triadic interaction theory’, Bian 43 and Shi 44 divided learning self-efficacy into two main elements, basic competence, and control, where basic competence includes the individual's sense of effort, competence, the individual sense of the environment, and the individual's sense of control over behavior. The primary sense of competence includes the individual's Sense of effort, competence, environment, and control over behavior. In this study, learning self-efficacy is divided into Learning behavioral efficacy and Learning ability efficacy. Learning behavioral efficacy includes individuals' sense of effort, environment, and control; learning ability efficacy includes individuals' sense of ability, belief, and interest.

In Fig.  1 , learning self-efficacy includes learning behavior efficacy and learning ability efficacy, in which the learning behavior efficacy is determined by the sense of effort, the sense of environment, the sense of control, and the learning ability efficacy is determined by the sense of ability, sense of belief, sense of interest. “Sense of effort” is the understanding of whether one can study hard. Self-efficacy includes the estimation of self-effort and the ability, adaptability, and creativity shown in a particular situation. One with a strong sense of learning self-efficacy thinks they can study hard and focus on tasks 44 . “Sense of environment” refers to the individual’s feeling of their learning environment and grasp of the environment. The individual is the creator of the environment. A person’s feeling and grasp of the environment reflect the strength of his sense of efficacy to some extent. A person with a shared sense of learning self-efficacy is often dissatisfied with his environment, but he cannot do anything about it. He thinks the environment can only dominate him. A person with a high sense of learning self-efficacy will be more satisfied with his school and think that his teachers like him and are willing to study in school 44 . “Sense of control” is an individual’s sense of control over learning activities and learning behavior. It includes the arrangement of individual learning time, whether they can control themselves from external interference, and so on. A person with a strong sense of self-efficacy will feel that he is the master of action and can control the behavior and results of learning. Such a person actively participates in various learning activities. When he encounters difficulties in learning, he thinks he can find a way to solve them, is not easy to be disturbed by the outside world, and can arrange his own learning time. The opposite is the sense of losing control of learning behavior 44 . “Sense of ability” includes an individual’s perception of their natural abilities, expectations of learning outcomes, and perception of achieving their learning goals. A person with a high sense of learning self-efficacy will believe that he or she is brighter and more capable in all areas of learning; that he or she is more confident in learning in all subjects. In contrast, people with low learning self-efficacy have a sense of powerlessness. They are self-doubters who often feel overwhelmed by their learning and are less confident that they can achieve the appropriate learning goals 44 . “Sense of belief” is when an individual knows why he or she is doing something, knows where he or she is going to learn, and does not think before he or she even does it: What if I fail? These are meaningless, useless questions. A person with a high sense of learning self-efficacy is more robust, less afraid of difficulties, and more likely to reach their learning goals. A person with a shared sense of learning self-efficacy, on the other hand, is always going with the flow and is uncertain about the outcome of their learning, causing them to fall behind. “Sense of interest” is a person's tendency to recognize and study the psychological characteristics of acquiring specific knowledge. It is an internal force that can promote people's knowledge and learning. It refers to a person's positive cognitive tendency and emotional state of learning. A person with a high sense of self-efficacy in learning will continue to concentrate on studying and studying, thereby improving learning. However, one with low learning self-efficacy will have psychology such as not being proactive about learning, lacking passion for learning, and being impatient with learning. The elements of learning self-efficacy can be quantified and detailed in the following Fig.  1 .

Learning self-efficacy research structure in this paper.

Research participants

All the procedures were conducted in adherence to the guidelines and regulations set by the institution. Prior to initiating the study, informed consent was obtained in writing from the participants, and the Institutional Review Board for Behavioral and Human Movement Sciences at Nanning Normal University granted approval for all protocols.

Two parallel classes are pre-selected as experimental subjects in our study, one as the experimental group and one as the control group. Social media assisted classroom teaching to intervene in the experimental group, while the control group did not intervene. When selecting the sample, it is essential to consider, as far as possible, the shortcomings of not using randomization to select or assign the study participants, resulting in unequal experimental and control groups. When selecting the experimental subjects, classes with no significant differences in initial status and external conditions, i.e. groups with homogeneity, should be selected. Our study finally decided to select a total of 44 students from Class 2021 Design 1 and a total of 29 students from Class 2021 Design 2, a total of 74 students from Nanning Normal University, as the experimental subjects. The former served as the experimental group, and the latter served as the control group. 73 questionnaires are distributed to measure before the experiment, and 68 are returned, with a return rate of 93.15%. According to the statistics, there were 8 male students and 34 female students in the experimental group, making a total of 44 students (mirrors the demographic trends within the humanities and arts disciplines from which our sample was drawn); there are 10 male students and 16 female students in the control group, making a total of 26 students, making a total of 68 students in both groups. The sample of those who took the course were mainly sophomores, with a small number of first-year students and juniors, which may be related to the nature of the subject of this course and the course system offered by the university. From the analysis of students' majors, liberal arts students in the experimental group accounted for the majority, science students and art students accounted for a small part. In contrast, the control group had more art students, and liberal arts students and science students were small. In the daily self-study time, the experimental and control groups are 2–3 h. The demographic information of research participants is shown in Table 1 .

Research procedure

Firstly, the ADDIE model is used for the innovative design of the teaching method of the course. The number of students in the experimental group was 44, 8 male and 35 females; the number of students in the control group was 29, 10 male and 19 females. Secondly, the classes are targeted at students and applied. Thirdly, the course for both the experimental and control classes is a convenient and practice-oriented course, with the course title “Graphic Design and Production”, which focuses on learning the graphic design software Photoshop. The course uses different cases to explain in detail the process and techniques used to produce these cases using Photoshop, and incorporates practical experience as well as relevant knowledge in the process, striving to achieve precise and accurate operational steps; at the end of the class, the teacher assigns online assignments to be completed on social media, allowing students to post their edited software tutorials online so that students can master the software functions. The teacher assigns online assignments to be completed on social media at the end of the lesson, allowing students to post their editing software tutorials online so that they can master the software functions and production skills, inspire design inspiration, develop design ideas and improve their design skills, and improve students' learning self-efficacy through group collaboration and online interaction. Fourthly, pre-tests and post-tests are conducted in the experimental and control classes before the experiment. Fifthly, experimental data are collected, analyzed, and summarized.

We use a questionnaire survey to collect data. Self-efficacy is a person’s subjective judgment on whether one can successfully perform a particular achievement. American psychologist Albert Bandura first proposed it. To understand the improvement effect of students’ self-efficacy after the experimental intervention, this work questionnaire was referenced by the author from “Self-efficacy” “General Perceived Self Efficacy Scale” (General Perceived Self Efficacy Scale) German psychologist Schwarzer and Jerusalem (1995) and “Academic Self-Efficacy Questionnaire”, a well-known Chinese scholar Liang 45 .  The questionnaire content is detailed in the supplementary information . A pre-survey of the questionnaire is conducted here. The second-year students of design majors collected 32 questionnaires, eliminated similar questions based on the data, and compiled them into a formal survey scale. The scale consists of 54 items, 4 questions about basic personal information, and 50 questions about learning self-efficacy. The Likert five-point scale is the questionnaire used in this study. The answers are divided into “completely inconsistent", “relatively inconsistent”, “unsure”, and “relatively consistent”. The five options of “Completely Meet” and “Compliant” will count as 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 points, respectively. Divided into a sense of ability (Q5–Q14), a sense of effort (Q15–Q20), a sense of environment (Q21–Q28), a sense of control (Q29–Q36), a sense of Interest (Q37–Q45), a sense of belief (Q46–Q54). To demonstrate the scientific effectiveness of the experiment, and to further control the influence of confounding factors on the experimental intervention. This article thus sets up a control group as a reference. Through the pre-test and post-test in different periods, comparison of experimental data through pre-and post-tests to illustrate the effects of the intervention.

Reliability indicates the consistency of the results of a measurement scale (See Table 2 ). It consists of intrinsic and extrinsic reliability, of which intrinsic reliability is essential. Using an internal consistency reliability test scale, a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of reliability statistics greater than or equal to 0.9 indicates that the scale has good reliability, 0.8–0.9 indicates good reliability, 7–0.8 items are acceptable. Less than 0.7 means to discard some items in the scale 46 . This study conducted a reliability analysis on the effects of the related 6-dimensional pre-test survey to illustrate the reliability of the questionnaire.

From the Table 2 , the Cronbach alpha coefficients for the pre-test, sense of effort, sense of environment, sense of control, sense of interest, sense of belief, and the total questionnaire, were 0.919, 0.839, 0.848, 0.865, 0.852, 0.889 and 0.958 respectively. The post-test Cronbach alpha coefficients were 0.898, 0.888, 0.886, 0.889, 0.900, 0.893 and 0.970 respectively. The Cronbach alpha coefficients were all greater than 0.8, indicating a high degree of reliability of the measurement data.

The validity, also known as accuracy, reflects how close the measurement result is to the “true value”. Validity includes structure validity, content validity, convergent validity, and discriminative validity. Because the experiment is a small sample study, we cannot do any specific factorization. KMO and Bartlett sphericity test values are an important part of structural validity. Indicator, general validity evaluation (KMO value above 0.9, indicating very good validity; 0.8–0.9, indicating good validity; 0.7–0.8 validity is good; 0.6–0.7 validity is acceptable; 0.5–0.6 means poor validity; below 0.45 means that some items should be abandoned.

Table 3 shows that the KMO values of ability, effort, environment, control, interest, belief, and the total questionnaire are 0.911, 0.812, 0.778, 0.825, 0.779, 0.850, 0.613, and the KMO values of the post-test are respectively. The KMO values are 0.887, 0.775, 0.892, 0.868, 0.862, 0.883, 0.715. KMO values are basically above 0.8, and all are greater than 0.6. This result indicates that the validity is acceptable, the scale has a high degree of reasonableness, and the valid data.

In the graphic design and production (professional design course), we will learn the practical software with cases. After class, we will share knowledge on the self-media platform. We will give face-to-face computer instruction offline from 8:00 to 11:20 every Wednesday morning for 16 weeks. China's top online sharing platform (APP) is Tik Tok, micro-blog (Micro Blog) and Xiao hong shu. The experiment began on September 1, 2022, and conducted the pre-questionnaire survey simultaneously. At the end of the course, on January 6, 2023, the post questionnaire survey was conducted. A total of 74 questionnaires were distributed in this study, recovered 74 questionnaires. After excluding the invalid questionnaires with incomplete filling and wrong answers, 68 valid questionnaires were obtained, with an effective rate of 91%, meeting the test requirements. Then, use the social science analysis software SPSS Statistics 26 to analyze the data: (1) descriptive statistical analysis of the dimensions of learning self-efficacy; (2) Using correlation test to analyze the correlation between learning self-efficacy and the use of social media; (3) This study used a comparative analysis of group differences to detect the influence of learning self-efficacy on various dimensions of social media and design courses. For data processing and analysis, use the spss26 version software and frequency statistics to create statistics on the basic situation of the research object and the basic situation of the use of live broadcast. The reliability scale analysis (internal consistency test) and use Bartlett's sphericity test to illustrate the reliability and validity of the questionnaire and the individual differences between the control group and the experimental group in demographic variables (gender, grade, Major, self-study time per day) are explained by cross-analysis (chi-square test). In the experimental group and the control group, the pre-test, post-test, before-and-after test of the experimental group and the control group adopt independent sample T-test and paired sample T-test to illustrate the effect of the experimental intervention (The significance level of the test is 0.05 two-sided).

Results and discussion

Comparison of pre-test and post-test between groups.

To study whether the data of the experimental group and the control group are significantly different in the pre-test and post-test mean of sense of ability, sense of effort, sense of environment, sense of control, sense of interest, and sense of belief. The research for this situation uses an independent sample T-test and an independent sample. The test needs to meet some false parameters, such as normality requirements. Generally passing the normality test index requirements are relatively strict, so it can be relaxed to obey an approximately normal distribution. If there is serious skewness distribution, replace it with the nonparametric test. Variables are required to be continuous variables. The six variables in this study define continuous variables. The variable value information is independent of each other. Therefore, we use the independent sample T-test.

From the Table 4 , a pre-test found that there was no statistically significant difference between the experimental group and the control group at the 0.05 confidence level ( p  > 0.05) for perceptions of sense of ability, sense of effort, sense of environment, sense of control, sense of interest, and sense of belief. Before the experiment, the two groups of test groups have the same quality in measuring self-efficacy. The experimental class and the control class are homogeneous groups. Table 5 shows the independent samples t-test for the post-test, used to compare the experimental and control groups on six items, including the sense of ability, sense of effort, sense of environment, sense of control, sense of interest, and sense of belief.

The experimental and control groups have statistically significant scores ( p  < 0.05) for sense of ability, sense of effort, sense of environment, sense of control, sense of interest, and sense of belief, and the experimental and control groups have statistically significant scores (t = 3.177, p  = 0.002) for a sense of competence. (t = 3.177, p  = 0.002) at the 0.01 level, with the experimental group scoring significantly higher (3.91 ± 0.51) than the control group (3.43 ± 0.73). The experimental group and the control group showed significance for the perception of effort at the 0.01 confidence level (t = 2.911, p  = 0.005), with the experimental group scoring significantly higher (3.88 ± 0.66) than the control group scoring significantly higher (3.31 ± 0.94). The experimental and control groups show significance at the 0.05 level (t = 2.451, p  = 0.017) for the sense of environment, with the experimental group scoring significantly higher (3.95 ± 0.61) than the control group scoring significantly higher (3.58 ± 0.62). The experimental and control groups showed significance for sense of control at the 0.05 level of significance (t = 2.524, p  = 0.014), and the score for the experimental group (3.76 ± 0.67) would be significantly higher than the score for the control group (3.31 ± 0.78). The experimental and control groups showed significance at the 0.01 level for sense of interest (t = 2.842, p  = 0.006), and the experimental group's score (3.87 ± 0.61) would be significantly higher than the control group's score (3.39 ± 0.77). The experimental and control groups showed significance at the 0.01 level for the sense of belief (t = 3.377, p  = 0.001), and the experimental group would have scored significantly higher (4.04 ± 0.52) than the control group (3.56 ± 0.65). Therefore, we can conclude that the experimental group's post-test significantly affects the mean scores of sense of ability, sense of effort, sense of environment, sense of control, sense of interest, and sense of belief. A social media-assisted course has a positive impact on students' self-efficacy.

Comparison of pre-test and post-test of each group

The paired-sample T-test is an extension of the single-sample T-test. The purpose is to explore whether the means of related (paired) groups are significantly different. There are four standard paired designs: (1) Before and after treatment of the same subject Data, (2) Data from two different parts of the same subject, (3) Test results of the same sample with two methods or instruments, 4. Two matched subjects receive two treatments, respectively. This study belongs to the first type, the 6 learning self-efficacy dimensions of the experimental group and the control group is measured before and after different periods.

Paired t-tests is used to analyze whether there is a significant improvement in the learning self-efficacy dimension in the experimental group after the experimental social media-assisted course intervention. In Table 6 , we can see that the six paired data groups showed significant differences ( p  < 0.05) in the pre and post-tests of sense of ability, sense of effort, sense of environment, sense of control, sense of interest, and sense of belief. There is a level of significance of 0.01 (t = − 4.540, p  = 0.000 < 0.05) before and after the sense of ability, the score after the sense of ability (3.91 ± 0.51), and the score before the Sense of ability (3.41 ± 0.55). The level of significance between the pre-test and post-test of sense of effort is 0.01 (t = − 4.002, p  = 0.000). The score of the sense of effort post-test (3.88 ± 0.66) will be significantly higher than the average score of the sense of effort pre-test (3.31 ± 0.659). The significance level between the pre-test and post-test Sense of environment is 0.01 (t = − 3.897, p  = 0.000). The average score for post- Sense of environment (3.95 ± 0.61) will be significantly higher than that of sense of environment—the average score of the previous test (3.47 ± 0.44). The average value of a post- sense of control (3.76 ± 0.67) will be significantly higher than the average of the front side of the Sense of control value (3.27 ± 0.52). The sense of interest pre-test and post-test showed a significance level of 0.01 (− 4.765, p  = 0.000), and the average value of Sense of interest post-test was 3.87 ± 0.61. It would be significantly higher than the average value of the Sense of interest (3.25 ± 0.59), the significance between the pre-test and post-test of belief sensing is 0.01 level (t = − 3.939, p  = 0.000). Thus, the average value of a post-sense of belief (4.04 ± 0.52) will be significantly higher than that of a pre-sense of belief Average value (3.58 ± 0.58). After the experimental group’s post-test, the scores for the Sense of ability, effort, environment, control, interest, and belief before the comparison experiment increased significantly. This result has a significant improvement effect. Table 7 shows that the control group did not show any differences in the pre and post-tests using paired t-tests on the dimensions of learning self-efficacy such as sense of ability, sense of effort, sense of environment, sense of control, sense of interest, and sense of belief ( p  > 0.05). It shows no experimental intervention for the control group, and it does not produce a significant effect.

The purpose of this study aims to explore the impact of social media use on college students' learning self-efficacy, examine the changes in the elements of college students' learning self-efficacy before and after the experiment, and make an empirical study to enrich the theory. This study developed an innovative design for course teaching methods using the ADDIE model. The design process followed a series of model rules of analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation, as well as conducted a descriptive statistical analysis of the learning self-efficacy of design undergraduates. Using questionnaires and data analysis, the correlation between the various dimensions of learning self-efficacy is tested. We also examined the correlation between the two factors, and verifies whether there was a causal relationship between the two factors.

Based on prior research and the results of existing practice, a learning self-efficacy is developed for university students and tested its reliability and validity. The scale is used to pre-test the self-efficacy levels of the two subjects before the experiment, and a post-test of the self-efficacy of the two groups is conducted. By measuring and investigating the learning self-efficacy of the study participants before the experiment, this study determined that there was no significant difference between the experimental group and the control group in terms of sense of ability, sense of effort, sense of environment, sense of control, sense of interest, and sense of belief. Before the experiment, the two test groups had homogeneity in measuring the dimensionality of learning self-efficacy. During the experiment, this study intervened in social media assignments for the experimental group. The experiment used learning methods such as network assignments, mutual aid communication, mutual evaluation of assignments, and group discussions. After the experiment, the data analysis showed an increase in learning self-efficacy in the experimental group compared to the pre-test. With the test time increased, the learning self-efficacy level of the control group decreased slightly. It shows that social media can promote learning self-efficacy to a certain extent. This conclusion is similar to Cao et al. 18 , who suggested that social media would improve educational outcomes.

We have examined the differences between the experimental and control group post-tests on six items, including the sense of ability, sense of effort, sense of environment, sense of control, sense of interest, and sense of belief. This result proves that a social media-assisted course has a positive impact on students' learning self-efficacy. Compared with the control group, students in the experimental group had a higher interest in their major. They showed that they liked to share their learning experiences and solve difficulties in their studies after class. They had higher motivation and self-directed learning ability after class than students in the control group. In terms of a sense of environment, students in the experimental group were more willing to share their learning with others, speak boldly, and participate in the environment than students in the control group.

The experimental results of this study showed that the experimental group showed significant improvement in the learning self-efficacy dimensions after the experimental intervention in the social media-assisted classroom, with significant increases in the sense of ability, sense of effort, sense of environment, sense of control, sense of interest and sense of belief compared to the pre-experimental scores. This result had a significant improvement effect. Evidence that a social media-assisted course has a positive impact on students' learning self-efficacy. Most of the students recognized the impact of social media on their learning self-efficacy, such as encouragement from peers, help from teachers, attention from online friends, and recognition of their achievements, so that they can gain a sense of achievement that they do not have in the classroom, which stimulates their positive perception of learning and is more conducive to the awakening of positive effects. This phenomenon is in line with Ajjan and Hartshorne 2 . They argue that social media provides many opportunities for learners to publish their work globally, which brings many benefits to teaching and learning. The publication of students' works online led to similar positive attitudes towards learning and improved grades and motivation. This study also found that students in the experimental group in the post-test controlled their behavior, became more interested in learning, became more purposeful, had more faith in their learning abilities, and believed that their efforts would be rewarded. This result is also in line with Ajjan and Hartshorne's (2008) indication that integrating Web 2.0 technologies into classroom learning environments can effectively increase students' satisfaction with the course and improve their learning and writing skills.

We only selected students from one university to conduct a survey, and the survey subjects were self-selected. Therefore, the external validity and generalizability of our study may be limited. Despite the limitations, we believe this study has important implications for researchers and educators. The use of social media is the focus of many studies that aim to assess the impact and potential of social media in learning and teaching environments. We hope that this study will help lay the groundwork for future research on the outcomes of social media utilization. In addition, future research should further examine university support in encouraging teachers to begin using social media and university classrooms in supporting social media (supplementary file 1 ).

The present study has provided preliminary evidence on the positive association between social media integration in education and increased learning self-efficacy among college students. However, several avenues for future research can be identified to extend our understanding of this relationship.

Firstly, replication studies with larger and more diverse samples are needed to validate our findings across different educational contexts and cultural backgrounds. This would enhance the generalizability of our results and provide a more robust foundation for the use of social media in teaching. Secondly, longitudinal investigations should be conducted to explore the sustained effects of social media use on learning self-efficacy. Such studies would offer insights into how the observed benefits evolve over time and whether they lead to improved academic performance or other relevant outcomes. Furthermore, future research should consider the exploration of potential moderators such as individual differences in students' learning styles, prior social media experience, and psychological factors that may influence the effectiveness of social media in education. Additionally, as social media platforms continue to evolve rapidly, it is crucial to assess the impact of emerging features and trends on learning self-efficacy. This includes an examination of advanced tools like virtual reality, augmented reality, and artificial intelligence that are increasingly being integrated into social media environments. Lastly, there is a need for research exploring the development and evaluation of instructional models that effectively combine traditional teaching methods with innovative uses of social media. This could guide educators in designing courses that maximize the benefits of social media while minimizing potential drawbacks.

In conclusion, the current study marks an important step in recognizing the potential of social media as an educational tool. Through continued research, we can further unpack the mechanisms by which social media can enhance learning self-efficacy and inform the development of effective educational strategies in the digital age.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding authors upon reasonable request. The data are not publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions.

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Acknowledgements

This work is supported by the 2023 Guangxi University Young and middle-aged Teachers' Basic Research Ability Enhancement Project—“Research on Innovative Communication Strategies and Effects of Zhuang Traditional Crafts from the Perspective of the Metaverse” (Grant Nos. 2023KY0385), and the special project on innovation and entrepreneurship education in universities under the “14th Five-Year Plan” for Guangxi Education Science in 2023, titled “One Core, Two Directions, Three Integrations - Strategy and Practical Research on Innovation and Entrepreneurship Education in Local Universities” (Grant Nos. 2023ZJY1955), and the 2023 Guangxi Higher Education Undergraduate Teaching Reform General Project (Category B) “Research on the Construction and Development of PBL Teaching Model in Advertising” (Grant Nos.2023JGB294), and the 2022 Guangxi Higher Education Undergraduate Teaching Reform Project (General Category A) “Exploration and Practical Research on Public Art Design Courses in Colleges and Universities under Great Aesthetic Education” (Grant Nos. 2022JGA251), and the 2023 Guangxi Higher Education Undergraduate Teaching Reform Project Key Project “Research and Practice on the Training of Interdisciplinary Composite Talents in Design Majors Based on the Concept of Specialization and Integration—Taking Guangxi Institute of Traditional Crafts as an Example” (Grant Nos. 2023JGZ147), and the2024 Nanning Normal University Undergraduate Teaching Reform Project “Research and Practice on the Application of “Guangxi Intangible Cultural Heritage” in Packaging Design Courses from the Ideological and Political Perspective of the Curriculum” (Grant Nos. 2024JGX048),and the 2023 Hubei Normal University Teacher Teaching Reform Research Project (Key Project) -Curriculum Development for Improving Pre-service Music Teachers' Teaching Design Capabilities from the Perspective of OBE (Grant Nos. 2023014), and the 2023 Guangxi Education Science “14th Five-Year Plan” special project: “Specialized Integration” Model and Practice of Art and Design Majors in Colleges and Universities in Ethnic Areas Based on the OBE Concept (Grant Nos. 2023ZJY1805), and the 2024 Guangxi University Young and Middle-aged Teachers’ Scientific Research Basic Ability Improvement Project “Research on the Integration Path of University Entrepreneurship and Intangible Inheritance - Taking Liu Sanjie IP as an Example” (Grant Nos. 2024KY0374), and the 2022 Research Project on the Theory and Practice of Ideological and Political Education for College Students in Guangxi - “Party Building + Red”: Practice and Research on the Innovation of Education Model in College Student Dormitories (Grant Nos. 2022SZ028), and the 2021 Guangxi University Young and Middle-aged Teachers’ Scientific Research Basic Ability Improvement Project - "Research on the Application of Ethnic Elements in the Visual Design of Live Broadcast Delivery of Guangxi Local Products" (Grant Nos. 2021KY0891).

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The contribution of H. to this paper primarily lies in research design and experimental execution. H. was responsible for the overall framework design of the paper, setting research objectives and methods, and actively participating in data collection and analysis during the experimentation process. Furthermore, H. was also responsible for conducting literature reviews and played a crucial role in the writing and editing phases of the paper. L.'s contribution to this paper primarily manifests in theoretical derivation and the discussion section. Additionally, author L. also proposed future research directions and recommendations in the discussion section, aiming to facilitate further research explorations. Y.'s contribution to this paper is mainly reflected in data analysis and result interpretation. Y. was responsible for statistically analyzing the experimental data and employing relevant analytical tools and techniques to interpret and elucidate the data results.

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Hu, J., Lai, Y. & Yi, X. Effectiveness of social media-assisted course on learning self-efficacy. Sci Rep 14 , 10112 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-60724-0

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Essay on Influence of Social Media

Students are often asked to write an essay on Influence of Social Media in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

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Introduction.

Social media, a powerful tool in the modern world, affects our lives in many ways. It influences how we communicate, share information, and even shape our opinions.

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Social media has revolutionized communication. It allows us to connect with people around the world, share ideas, and express ourselves freely.

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It has become a major source of news and information. However, it can also spread misinformation, so it’s important to verify information before believing it.

Shaping Opinions

Social media can shape our opinions. We often see posts that align with our views, which can strengthen our beliefs.

250 Words Essay on Influence of Social Media

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In the digital age, social media platforms have become an integral part of our daily lives. They have transformed the way we communicate, share information, and perceive the world around us.

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The Double-Edged Sword

In conclusion, the influence of social media is a double-edged sword. It can connect, inform, and empower, but it can also mislead, isolate, and harm. As users, it is incumbent upon us to use these platforms responsibly, being mindful of their potential impacts on our lives and society at large.

500 Words Essay on Influence of Social Media

The social impact of social media.

The advent of social media platforms has significantly altered our social interactions. It has made it possible for us to connect with people across the globe, breaking down geographical barriers. However, it has also raised concerns about the quality of these interactions. The virtual nature of these platforms can lead to a lack of genuine human connection, contributing to feelings of isolation and loneliness.

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Understanding the influence of social media is not just about recognizing its impact on our individual lives, but also about acknowledging its role in shaping our collective social, political, and cultural realities. As digital citizens, we must strive to use these platforms responsibly, while also advocating for policies and practices that safeguard our societies against their potential harms.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Investigating social media addiction and impact of social media addiction, loneliness, depression, life satisfaction and problem-solving skills on academic self-efficacy and academic success among university students.

• 1 Faculty of Health Sciences, Health Management Department, Bingöl University, Bingöl, Türkiye
• 2 Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Gerontology, Malatya Turgut Özal University, Malatya, Türkiye

Introduction: The negative effects of post-COVID-19 restrictions have been detected in students’ mental well-being due to internet addiction, changing habits, despair and uncertainty. Students’ academic success is expected to be affected by social media addiction, loneliness, depression, life satisfaction, problem solving skills and academic self-efficacy factors. This study aimed to determine the level of social media addiction and the effects of these factors on the academic success of university students and define their interactions with each other.

Methods: Four hundred nineteen questionnaires were collected between October–December 2022 at Bingöl University, Türkiye. Descriptive statistics, independent t-test, One-Way ANOVA, correlation and multiple linear regression methods were used to analyze data with the help of the SPSS 22 software.

Results: Middle level grade (GPA) average (71,17 ± 9,69 out of 100), low level social support from friends and family members (34,6%), spending more than 4 h on social media (42,5%), middle level social media addiction, moderate depression level (51,31%-PHQ > 10), mild loneliness and slight dissatisfaction with life were found among students. Furthermore, high academic self-efficacy, moderate agreement with academic performance and good problem-solving skills were indicated in the survey results. Significant differences, such as higher life satisfaction among males and higher depression among females, were measured. Academic self-efficacy scale, problem solving skills and satisfaction with life had a negative correlation with social media addiction and depression, while a positive correlation with academic performance measures. Problem solving skills, satisfaction with life, fourth class vs. others and living alone vs. others were positive predictors of the academic self-efficacy. Meanwhile, loneliness was a negative predictor of the academic self-efficacy, while higher problem-solving skills and being female were positive factors leading to a higher GPA.

Discussion: The fact that the participants were only students from Bingöl University limits the ability to generalize the results. Policymakers could implement social and problem-solving skills training to develop better academic programs and cognitive-behavioral therapy for students’ academic success.

1 Introduction

Students are more vulnerable to mental disorders and it is believed that the number of students addicted to social media had increased during the COVID-19 Pandemic due to movement restrictions and uncertainty, which had led to post-pandemic effects on students’ well-being and performance ( 1 – 3 ). Spending more than 3 h on social media platforms can lead to social media addiction, culminating in low mental health that affects work and academic productivity. Moreover, excessive social media usage can develop sleep loss problems, anxiety and depression ( 4 ). One study in Türkiye found higher levels of social anxiety and depression as well as lower self-esteem among students with internet addiction ( 5 ). However, social media can also decrease loneliness and depression ( 6 ).

Social media applications offer individuals the opportunity to facilitate communication and access information by removing various types of limitations. The young generation’s preoccupation with social media has rendered them incapable of resisting social media as an alternative to manage anxiety and stress. This situation causes some problems along with the positive features of social media, one of these problems being social media addiction. Excessive use and lack of control are main reasons for social media addiction or behavioral addiction disorder, which leads to social overload, envy and anxiety, similar to compulsive buying behaviors. Mood alternations, negative outcomes, and excessive time spent on social media result in loss of productivity and feelings of isolation that develop over time with psychological dependence on social media, which leads to users trying to overcome undesirable moods using social media ( 3 , 7 , 8 ).

Long-term psychological problems occur as a result of extreme stress and depression. Individuals who are alone tend to use social media more. Excessive use of social media can isolate people ( 3 ). Social media first affects individuals, and these individuals with psychological and behavioral changes then cause changes in the sociological, psychological and cultural characteristics of the society ( 9 , 10 ).

Level of academic self-efficacy can influence the academic productivity and mental wellbeing of students. Problem solving skills can help students to define and determine why an issue is evolving and implement appropriate solutions that affect academic success and mental well-being during crisis situations, like the COVID-19 Pandemic, earthquakes etc. An individual’s differences in depression and social media addiction can be revealed and students’ academic success can be improved by examining relationships among related variables. This suggests that other circumstances should be taken into account when explaining social media addiction and depression since problem-solving skills and loneliness also have significant effects on students’ learning process and mental health problems. Moreover, minor mental problems can be detected in students with high life satisfaction. In the literature, this type of study has mostly used statistical methods such as descriptive, correlation and regression methods.

This study intended to determine the relationship between social media addiction, life satisfaction, depression, loneliness, problem-solving skills and academic self-efficacy, while also determining the predictors of academic self-efficacy and academic success based on the GPA and perceived self-success evaluation among university students in Türkiye. The study tried to combine their academic success based on cause-effect with self-evaluated and real academic success parameters. The main contribution of this study is to determine changes in social media addiction, depression, life satisfaction and their effects by analyzing loneliness, problem solving skills and academic self-efficacy in order to predict the academic performance of university students in Türkiye.

The study aimed to answer three main research questions: Firstly, what are the links between social media addiction, loneliness, depression, satisfaction with life of satisfaction, ability to solve problems, self-efficacy, and academic success in college students? Secondly, what are the changes in social media addiction pre, during, and after the COVID-19 periods? Finally, what the predictors of academic success and academic self-efficacy? This study hypothesized that there is a strong negative correlation and relationship between social media addiction, depression and loneliness with academic success and academic self-efficacy. In addition, there is a strong positive correlation and relationship between problem-solving skills, life satisfaction and academic success and academic self-efficacy. The research paper is organized as follows: Literature section (section 2) provides insight into academic self-efficacy, adult problem-solving skills, social media addiction, life satisfaction, depression and loneliness factors. Materials and methods (section 3) presents the study design and setting, participants and procedures, scales, and statistical methods used to analyze the data. In the next sections, the results (section 4) are presented and discussed, along with the study’s limitations and future recommendations (section 5). Finally, a brief conclusion is given in section 6.

2 Literature review

Academic self-efficacy and problem-solving skills are important capabilities required for managing undesirable situations and improving students’ academic performance. A student’s belief in successfully completing an academic task as an individual is a crucial part of academic success in-relation to self-efficacy. Loneliness and depression are related to social media addiction ( 4 , 7 ), while loneliness alone is correlated to internet addiction, and severe symptoms of depression ( 11 ). Using the internet for more than 5 h was significantly associated with internet addiction and depression ( 12 ). Students with high levels self-efficacy are more willing to participate in academic activities and can develop effective strategies when in difficulties ( 7 ).

2.1 Academic self-efficacy

Academic success refers to the performance in education courses and transfer of knowledge. Students whose academic achievements increase tend to transition into their professional lives more competently and successfully ( 13 ). Academic self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief in the ability to complete an academic task rather than the belief in personal attitudes and abilities. Academic self-efficacy helps students become more socially, emotionally and academically optimistic individuals. In addition, students with this trait are less likely to engage in risky behavior and can easily cope with difficult situations. In recent years, researchers have found that there is a strong link between academic self-efficacy and academic achievement. Studies show that a positive academic self-efficacy supports academic success ( 14 , 15 ).

2.2 Problem solving skills for adults

A problem is an undesirable, distressing or complicated situation, such as an economic, emotional, or physical difficulty, leading to a disturbed individual. Obstacles and conflicts can prevent an individual from reaching one’s goals. Novel problems such as new jobs as well as novel tasks and goals can be managed with effective problem-solving skills in an uncertain and complex society and positive results can be obtained with problem-solving mechanisms, and choosing an effective solution among possible or alternative solutions ( 16 ). Making logical decisions and carrying out activities should be in accordance with goals and objectives. Problem-solving skills depend on an individual’s experience and rational problem-solving skills can be effective as a positive orientation toward problem solving ( 16 , 17 ). Trial-and-error and internal or causal approaches are applied to find solutions to problems. Planning, implementing and evaluating actions using the social network and exchanging knowledge and information are some of the ways to solve problems ( 16 , 18 ).

Analytic, flexible, specific, logical, structural, realistic and empathetic thinking and openness to new relationships are accepted as problem-solving competencies. Problem definition, generating alternative solution, decision-making, and implementing solutions are domains of problem-solving skills. Using tools interactively, interacting in heterogeneous groups, and acting autonomously are three main competencies required for adapting to a changing environment. Moreover, cognitive competencies (critical thinking and problem solving), intrapersonal competencies (flexibility and adaptability) and interpersonal competencies (communication and collaboration) are necessary for achieving high academic success. Positive emotions, such as joy or hope, are also aspects of problem-solving that help achieve goals. An individual with a positive problem-orientation approach feels confident in dealing with problems and challenges, called constructive problem-solving, better than impulsivity-careless style and avoiding problems style, categorized as a negative problem-orientation ( 18 ).

2.3 Social media addiction

Social media addiction is defined as a form of addiction that harms the social, physical and psychological functionality of a person through excessive and increased frequency of social media use over time, and the inability to limit internet use in spite it causing social, academic and mental problems (psychological dependency) that affects the daily activities in a person’s life. Escaping from stress and life problems as a way to continue interpersonal relationships can be reasons for using social media besides keeping in touch with friends, chatting, sharing interesting things, gathering useful information, disseminating information, gaining more contacts, making groups, selling or buying products. Inefficient self-regulation, neglect of personal life, cognitive preoccupation, mood modifying experiences, lack of tolerance, concealment of addictive behaviors, and escapism are signs of social media addiction ( 3 , 7 , 8 , 19 ). Some of the negative impacts of excessive usage of social media on a user’s life (internet addiction) are salience, excessive thinking or planning to use social media, excessive time spent on social media, mood modification, social media as a tool for overcoming emotional problem, relapse or failure in decreasing social media usage, withdrawn or feeling troubled when unable to use social media and conflicts ( 20 ).

Studies have shown that people between the ages of 18–29 use social media more than older people ( 21 ). Situations such as not being able to quit or control a substance or behavior seen in addictions are also valid for social media addiction. Increase in the time spent on social media causes individuals to constantly update themselves, and at the same time, remain connected to social media in order to follow developments in their environment ( 22 ). Having easy internet access and increased usage time cause users to spend longer periods of time on the internet, without being aware that the time could be spent on finishing tasks with good intentions and determination. Social relationship problems, such as lacking close family relationships, can cause risk-taking behavior and individuals might turn to long-term internet use in efforts to seek new relationships, preferring communication via the internet instead of face-to-face communication that might be distressful and irritable, thus, spending even more time online ( 23 ).

Occasional users who spend less time on social media have lower levels of depression, anxiety and stress. Low risk users are high on tolerance and salience criteria. At-risk users are more prone to depression, anxiety, and stress, while problematic users have the highest level of problematic social media use, depression, anxiety, and stress ( 20 ). Social networks can cause problems such as decreased critical thinking abilities as part of problem solving-skills, attention deficit, hyperactivity disorder, lack in time management, decrease in the time allocated to reading and decline in school grades ( 24 ). Addicted young adults are more likely to show depressive symptoms ( 25 ). In addition, long-term use of social media leads to changes in people’s mood and personality patterns and their learning processes and academic life are influenced, especially during a crisis, as seen during the COVID-19 Pandemic ( 3 ).

2.4 Satisfaction with life

Satisfaction is one of the most important indicators of successful adaptation to life and it reflects a cognitively self-judging well-being relating to human life, work, family, physical and mental health etc. This trait is beneficial for health, longevity, and social relationships. Life satisfaction, income, job satisfaction, needs satisfaction, resilience, as well as social relationships and support are positive influencing factors of satisfaction, while unemployment, stress, anxiety, and depression are negative factors ( 26 ). A lower risk of depression in students is associated with a satisfied life. People who are more satisfied with their lives are expected to have a positive mood and successful academic activities ( 1 , 2 ). Students with low life satisfaction during COVID-19 were found to be affected by the lockdowns, economic problems, fear of infection, social media influence etc ( 27 ).

2.5 Depression

Depression has increased recently around the world, including Türkiye, due to the COVID-19 Pandemic, earthquakes and the worsening economic situation. This is evident in depressive mood swings, despair, loss of interest, loss of energy, feelings of worthlessness etc. Students are inclined to feel depressed due to low academic achievements, and a lack of employment and earning opportunities in the future. A lack of social interactions can also lead to depression ( 1 , 28 ). Females and last-term students have shown a higher prevalence of depression due to worries of not securing a job after graduation ( 27 , 29 ). Suicide rates have increased in tandem with increased depression rates among young students, whereby one in five students have reported suicidal ideation ( 30 ).

2.6 Loneliness

A discrepancy between desired and real social relations leads to loneliness. Size of the network, frequency of contact with members and quality of the network are dimensions of an individual’s social network ( 31 ). Some of the traits of a lonely individual are being less trusting, more anxious and pessimistic, perceiving others around them more negatively and approaching social interactions in a defensive and hostile manner. However, a positive social relationship network provides a source of support, meaning and guidance in life ( 32 ). As age increases, the prevalence of loneliness also rises. A strong association between loneliness and depression has been found ( 31 – 33 ). A higher prevalence of loneliness is evident in women (50–65-year-old), single, separated, divorced or widowed, living in a rural setting, lower frequency of social interactions and smaller social networks ( 31 ).

3 Materials and methods

This study tried to determine the effects of social media addiction, problem solving skills, satisfaction with life and depression on academic self-efficacy, GPA and self-evaluated success of students as well as their predictors so that strategies can be developed to improve students’ productivity. A part of this study that analyzed social media addiction and its dimensions was presented in a conference by Polat and Aslan ( 34 ).

3.1 Study design and setting

Scales and parameters were determined based on researcher experiences on that field, literature and previous studies ( 1 , 3 , 28 , 35 ). This study employed a descriptive and correlational design involving university students.

3.2 Participants and procedures

The survey was conducted hybrid both online and face to face to collect enough sample size. The questionnaire was created via Google Forms and also on paper. Approximately 50% of the survey instruments were collected online and the rest were collected in the paper form. The purposive sampling method was used with the selection criterion being university students. The online survey was sent to students by emails, WhatsApp, MS Teams, Instagram and other social media platforms. Students were assured about the anonymity and confidentiality of their participation in the survey and that they could refrain from participating in the survey whenever they wanted. Information about the study and the informed consent were included in the first part of the questionnaire, and participants could complete the following parts of the survey after consenting to participate. The primary sample size was based on a 20,000 population, calculated according to Cochran’s equation and 377 appropriate samples were finally confirmed with 5% margin of error and a 95% confidence level. Four hundred nineteen questionnaires were collected between October 2022 and December 2022 at Bingöl University. Therefore, a sufficient sample size was reached within the scope of this study.

3.3 Measures

Personal information, academic self-efficacy, social media addiction scale (adult form), problem solving skills scale (for adults), satisfaction with life scale, loneliness scale, short form and PHQ-9 depression scale based on our previous findings and publications were applied in this study.

3.3.1 Personal information form

This form containing introductory information about the students participating in this study was prepared by the researchers. The questions posed to the students were related to age, gender, the class of study programme, resident place, social support, main source of support, years of using social media, frequency of using social media daily, time spent on social media daily and general grade average.

3.3.2 Academic self-efficacy scale and academic success

ASES, self-evaluated- academic performance and GPA variables are used in that study to measure the academic performance of students related to other variables. GPA is a more objective method compared other two methods. It would be scientifically interesting to compare three academic performance measures with other variables.

This ASES scale was developed by Jerusalem and Schwarzer ( 36 ), while the Turkish adaptation of ASES was by Yılmaz et al. ( 37 ). This scale, which has a one-dimensional structure, consists of 7 items (I am always able to accomplish the tasks that need to be done during university education etc. items) related to the academic self-efficacy structure and graded based on a 4-point Likert scale. The lowest score that can be obtained from the scale is 7 and the highest score is 28. A high score indicates high self-efficacy. The scale showed good internal consistency with Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.696.

A single item, ‘ Satisfied with my academic performance compared to my classmates ’ was separately added for the student’s self-evaluation with 6-point Likert scale (1: strongly disagree, 2: disagree, 3: somewhat disagree, 4: somewhat agree, 5: agree, 6: strongly agree) with ranges (1–1,83 = strongly disagree; 1, 83–2,66 = disagree; 2,66-3,49 = somewhat disagree; 3,49-4,32 = somewhat agree; 4,32 -5,15 = agree; 5.15–6.0 = strongly agree). The current GPA of students was used to evaluate the academic success of students with other variables.

3.3.3 Social media addiction scale - adult form

This scale was developed by Şahin and Yağcı ( 38 ), together with the Virtual tolerance (VT) and virtual communication (VC) sub-dimensions. The degree of participation in expressed in a 5 -point Likert scale (1: completely not suitable for me, 2: not suitable for me, 3: undecided, 4: suitable for me, 5: very suitable for me). The SMAC-AF consists of 20 items (I see social media as an escape from the real world, I stay on social media longer than I planned. Etc.) with 20–100 points. The Virtual tolerance (VT) sub-dimension consists of items 1 to 11, and Virtual communication (VC) consists of items 12 to 20. Items 5 and 11 were reverse scored. A high score means that the individual perceives himself as a “social media addict.” The level of addiction range developed by Şahin and Yağcı ( 38 ) is shown in Table 1 . The Cronbach Alpha’s internal consistency coefficient for the overall scale was 0.94 and 0.92 for Virtual tolerance and 0.91 for Virtual communication ( 38 ). The Cronbach Alpha internal consistency coefficient for the overall scale in this study showed very good internal consistency with a Cronbach’s Alpha score of 0,876. Virtual tolerance and Virtual communication had very good Cronbach’s Alpha scores of 0,803 and 0,833, respectively.

Table 1 . Social media addiction scale and evaluation of subscales ( 38 ).

3.3.4 Problem solving skills for adults

This scale was developed by Yaman and Dede ( 39 ) and they carried out the validity and reliability of that scale in Türkiye. Problem solving skills scale for adults is a 5 -point Likert scale consisting of 18 items (I compare every possible solution to find the best solution to a problem etc.). Thinking about the effects of the solution to the problem (items 1–5), problem solving through modeling (items 6–8), alternative solutions research (items 9–12), determination in practice (items 13–15) and analyzing the problem encountered (16–18) are five sub–factors of the scale. The arithmetic mean scores ranges: Never (1–1.8), Seldom (1.81–2.60), Sometimes (2.61–3.49), Often (3.41–4.20) and Always (4.21–5.00) are used to compare with our results that higher scores show better problem solving skills for adults. The Cronbach’s Alpha internal consistency coefficient for the overall scale in this study was found to be ‘very good’ with a score of 0.934. The solution of the problem, problem solving through modeling, alternative solutions research, determination in practice and analyzing the problem encountered had a Cronbach’s Alpha score of 0,876, 0,752, 0,837, 0.768 and 0,784, respectively.

3.3.5 Satisfaction with life

The adapted Turkish scale was developed by Lavallee et al. ( 40 ) and improved by Akın and Yalnız ( 41 ). The Life Satisfaction Scale consists of 5 items (I have a life close to my ideals in many ways, my living conditions are perfect etc.). This one-dimensional scale has a 7-point Likert rating (“1” absolutely disagree - “7” absolutely agree). The satisfaction in life scale was translated by Aslan, Ochnik & Çınar ( 2 ) and applied to university students in Türkiye. The possible range of scores is 5–35, with a score of 20 representing a neutral point on the scale. Cutoff scores are low (5–17), medium (18–23), satisfied (26–30), and high (24–35). In this study, the internal consistency coefficient for the satisfaction with life scale was very high with a Cronbach’s Alpha score of 0.872.

3.3.6 UCLA loneliness scale short form

The UCLA Loneliness Scale Short Form (ULS-8) was developed by Hays and Dimatteo ( 42 ) and Dogan et al. ( 43 ) provided the Turkish adaptation. The scale consists 8 items (I do not have any friend, there’s no one I can turn to etc.) with a 4-point Likert-scale (1 - not suitable to 4 - completely appropriate) with two reversed items (items 3 and 6). The highest score that can be obtained from the scale is 32 and the lowest score is 8. As the scores obtained from the scale increase, the individual’s level of loneliness also increases ( 43 ). In this study, the internal consistency coefficient for the overall scale was found to be very high with a Cronbach’s Alpha score of 0.814.

3.3.7 Depression scale

The PHQ-9 consists of 9 items (having little interest or pleasure in doing things, feeling sad, depressed or hopeless etc.) and it conforms with the DSM-V diagnostic criteria ( 44 ). Sari et al. ( 45 ) had adapted the reliability and validity of the PHQ-9 scale in Türkiye. The PHQ-9 is a measurement based on the patient health survey and there are 9 questions in the questionnaire and each question is scored on a 3-point Likert-scale ranging from 0 = not at all to 3 = nearly every day. Points are collected for each question and according to the scoring system in the original questionnaire, 1–4 points are rated as minimal, 5–9 light, 10–14 moderate, 15–19 moderate and 20–27 severe (depression). A cut-off score of 10 (PHQ-9 ≥ 10) or more is recommended for screening major depressive disorders ( 46 , 47 ). In this study, the internal consistency coefficient for the overall scale was found to be very high with a Cronbach’s Alpha score of 0.870.

3.4 Statistical analysis

Descriptive statistics (reliability of the measures, frequencies, mean scores (M), standard deviation (SD) and percentages) were used in the preliminary statistical analysis. The normality assumption was verified using skewness and kurtosis scores of between −2 and + 2 as being acceptable ( 48 ). A one-way ANOVA and independent t-test were performed for testing the differences in mean scores. Next, correlation and Multiple linear regression methods were used to determine the correlation and predictors of the dependent variables.

Pearson correlation (>0.8) and Variance inflation factors (VIF) (< 5 indicates a low correlation, between 5 and 10 indicates a moderate correlation, > 10 indicates a high or intolerable correlation) of the model predictors ( 49 ) for collinearity diagnostics, while no pattern in the residuals (error) for homoscedasticity (equal variance, and no pattern) was determined by making a scatterplot with the residuals against the dependent variable. The Durbin Watson test (2 - no autocorrelation; 0 to <2 - positive autocorrelation and > 2 to 4 – negative autocorrelation) for no autocorrelation of the error terms (independent errors) and normally distributed errors by the quantile-quantile (Q-Q) plot or the probability-probability (P–P) plot were examined for linear regression assumptions in this study.

3.5 Ethical aspect of the research

This study was approved by the Bingöl University Health Sciences Scientific Research and Publication Board (Protocol N. E.74742), in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The data collection form states that participation in this study is on a voluntary basis and the information provided by the participants would be treated with strict confidentiality. In addition, the purpose of the research and the eventual results were also explained. The participant’s confirmation to participate in the study (informed approval principle) was written in the data collection form.

4 Results of the study

4.1 sample characteristics and descriptive statistics.

The majority of participants were female (68,5%) and the average age was 21 years (21,35 ± 3,32) with an average income of 2.045 Turkish Lira (₺) per month. 46,1% of them were first class students and 67,5% of them received accommodation in a dormitory (See Table 2 ).

Table 2 . Descriptive statistics and social media use of the study sample ( n  = 419).

They received low levels of social support from friends and family members (65,4%). The average grade (GPA) was 71 (71 ± 9,69, n  = 218) out of 100, indicating a moderate level of academic success. 32,9% had been using social media for 4–6 years and 27.0% had been using social media for more than 7 years and many started to use social media at an early age. 34,1% of them visited social media platforms more than 15 times per day and just 11,0% spent less than an hour on social media platforms, which indicates that 42,5% have the potential to become social media addicts. Moreover, 34.8% were criticized by family members for spending too much time on social media, as shown in Table 2 .

Middle level (53,49 ± 14,59) social media addiction was measured among students. Sub-groups of the scale contained middle level virtual tolerance (30,99 ± 8,72) and low middle level virtual communication (22,49 ± 7,53) social media addiction, as shown in Table 3 . The average academic self-efficacy total is 19,14 ± 3,89 with average mean:2,73 ± 0,55 indicating that they have high academic self-efficacy (2,5-3,25). ‘ Satisfied with my academic performance compared to my classmates ’ had a mean average: 4,06 ± 1,41 indicating that they somewhat agreed with their academic performance. The students had a mean of 3,75 ± 0,75 (sum 67,59 ± 13,65) for problem solving skills in the ‘ often range ’ (3,41-4,20). The sub-items were also in ‘ often range ’ and ‘ determination in the practice group ’ has the highest mean (3,92 ± 0,90). Students were slightly dissatisfied (18,47 ± 7,66) with their life and they had a mean of 15,29 ± 5,80 for loneliness, representing mild loneliness. They had a moderate depression level and 51,31% (PHQ > 10) of them had a type of depression. 8,6% of them had thought about death almost every day and 13,6% of them had thought of death for more than half a day.

Table 3 . Descriptive statistics, prevalence and normality checking of the scales ( n  = 419).

4.2 Checking the significant differences of the scales

According to the independent t-test on gender, significant differences were found for life satisfaction ( t  = 2,95; p  = 0,003 < 0,05; Cohen’s d = 0,311) and depression ( t  = −2,27; p  = 0,02 < 0,05; Cohen’s d = 0,23) scales, as shown in Table 4 . Males had a higher life satisfaction (20,09 ± 7,71) with medium effect size, while females had higher depression levels with small effect size (Cohen’s d = 0,23). There were no significant differences in social support in all scales ( p  > 0,05). According to the one-way ANOVA test for ‘ staying place ’, there were significant differences for social media addiction ( F  = 2,981; p  = 0,031 < 0,05; η 2 (Eta squared) =0,021) with a 2,1% medium effect size, while there were no significant differences for other scales ( p  > 0,05). Significant differences were measured for ‘ staying with family ’ (51,33 ± 16,41) and ‘ friends ’ (61,57 ± 11,80), whereby students living with friends were more addicted to social media.

Table 4 . Significant differences according to gender.

There were significant differences for the social media addiction scale ( F  = 22,55; p  = 0,000 < 0,05; η 2  = 0,1,402), with a large effect size proportion of variance according to students’ daily usage determined by means of a one-way ANOVA test. The highest mean was measured for students using more than 7 h of social media (63,66 ± 17,16, n  = 57) and between 4 and 6 h daily (57,47 ± 12,70, n  = 121). Furthermore, there were significant differences in visiting social media platforms for the social media addiction scale ( F  = 29,59; p  = 0,000 < 0,05; η 2  = 0,176) and satisfaction with life ( F  = 4,25; p  = 0,006 < 0,05; η 2  = 0,029), indicating that students visiting social media more than 15 times per day (60,20 ± 15,07, n  = 143) and 11–15 times per day (56,43 ± 10,37, n  = 60) had the highest mean. Student groups who visited more than 15 times per day (17,73 ± 8,05, n  = 143) and 11–15 times per day (17,48 ± 6,88, n  = 60) had the lowest life satisfaction.

4.3 Correlation among variables

Social media addiction has the highest correlation with time spent on social media ( r  = 0,352; p  < 0,01), loneliness ( r  = 0,341; p  < 0,01) and depression ( r  = 0,307; p  < 0,01), as well as a negative low correlation with academic self-efficacy, problem solving skills and life satisfaction, as shown in Table 5 . Academic self-efficacy had the highest positive correlation with ‘ satisfied with my academic performance compared to my classmates ’ ( r  = 0,426; p  < 0,01), problem solving skills ( r  = 0,411; p  < 0,01), life satisfaction ( r  = 0,293; p  < 0,01) and GPA ( r  = 0,253; p  < 0,01), while a negative correlation with loneliness ( r  = −0,280; p  < 0,01) and depression ( r  = −0,148; p  < 0,01). Problem solving skills had the highest positive correlation with academic self-efficacy ( r  = 0,411; p  < 0,01) and ‘ satisfied with my academic performance compared to my classmates ’ ( r  = 0,315; p  < 0,01), while a negative correlation was measured with loneliness ( r  = −0,393; p  < 0,01). Depression had the highest significant correlation with loneliness ( r  = 0,388; p  < 0,01) and social media addiction ( r  = 0,307; p  < 0,01), while a significant negative correlation with life satisfaction ( r  = −0,288, p  < 0,01), academic self-efficacy ( r  = −0,148; p  < 0,01) and monthly income ( r  = −0,145; p  < 0,01).

Table 5 . Correlation among variables.

4.4 Multiple linear regression

A regression model that meets the sufficiency criteria based on logical connection of variables was developed to measure the academic success of students (academic self-efficacy, GPA and satisfied with academic performance), as the dependent variable, from differences in independent variables like gender (binary variable: 0 = male and 1 = female), age, yearly income, living place as four different binary variables vs. others (family = 1 vs. 0 = other etc.), class as binary variables vs. others (1.class = 1 vs. others = 0 etc.), years of internet usage, daily visits to social media platforms, daily time spent on social media and scales (social media addiction, loneliness, PHQ, problem solving, satisfaction with life) were entered into a multi linear regression model by using the stepwise method. Sub-scales of social media addiction and problem-solving scales in the models (Model 2, Model 4 and Model 6) were separately entered into the multi linear regression model instead of the main scale to measure their effects on students’ academic success.

The regression models provided in Table 6 shows a summary of significant predictive factors in terms of coefficients, B, for each variable obtained from the regression analysis and the best models are highlighted in the bold. Problem solving, satisfaction with life, 4.class & vs., loneliness and living alone were significant predictors of academic self-efficacy with an Adjusted R Square: 0,237 in Model 1 (Academic self-efficacy = 1,820 + 0,217*problem solving skills+0,066*satisfaction with life +0,219*4.class vs. others −0,103* loneliness +0,345* living alone vs. others). The model indicates that for every additional unit in problem solving skills, academic self-efficacy increases by an average of 0,217 if all other factors are kept constant. Similarly, other factors can be the models. The ‘ alternative solutions research ’ sub-group in the problem-solving skills scale was the only significant parameter, besides satisfaction with life, 4.class vs. others, loneliness and living alone vs. others, as predictors of academic self-efficacy with an Adjusted R Square: 0.09, as shown in Model 2 (Academic self-efficacy = 1,976 + 0,188*alternative solutions research+0,068*satisfaction with life+0,228*4.class vs. others −0,125* loneliness +0,356* living alone vs. others). 1.class vs. others, problem solving and gender in the third model of full scales with an Adjusted R Square: 0.075 in Model 3 (GPA = 61,310 + 2,175* problem solving skills+2,887* gender-8,513*1.class vs. others) and 1.class vs. others, ‘ thinking about the effects of the solution to the problem ’ and ‘ analyzing the problem encountered ’ by groups in the problem-solving skills scale with an Adjusted R Square: 0.24 in Model 4 (GPA = 65,61 + 3,52* thinking about the effects of the solution of the problem −1,87*analyzing the problem encountered −9,33*1.class vs. others), were the predictors of GPA. Problem solving, satisfaction with life and loneliness in Model 5 (Satisfied with academic performance = 2,41 + 0,435*problem solving skills +0,150*satisfaction with life-0,280*loneliness) with an Adjusted R Square = 0.145, and ‘ alternative solutions research ’, satisfaction with life and loneliness with an Adjusted R Square: 0.156 value in Model 6 (Satisfied with academic performance = 2,66 + 0,391*alternative solutions research+0,154*satisfaction with life-0,316*loneliness) were the predictors of satisfied with academic performance compared to other students.

Table 6 . Regression model for academic success and self-efficacy of students.

Problem solving skills, mainly ‘ alternative solutions research ’, satisfaction with life, 4. class vs. others and living alone vs. others, are positive predictors of academic self-efficacy, while loneliness is a negative predictor of academic self-efficacy, as shown in Model 1 and Model 2. Problem solving skills and gender (being female) are positive predictors of GPA, while 1.class vs. others is a negative predicator of GPA, as shown in Model 3. ‘ Thinking about the effects of the solution to the problem ’ and ‘ analyzing the problem encountered ’ are both crucial problem-solving skills, while ‘ thinking about the effects of the solution to the problem ’ is a positive factor effecting GPA, while ‘ analyzing the problem encountered ’ is a negative predictor of GPA, as shown in Model 4. 1.class vs. others is again a negative factor of GPA. Problem solving skills, especially ‘ alternative solutions research ’ group and satisfaction with life, are positive factors affecting ‘ satisfied with academic performance compared with other students ’, while loneliness is a negative factor, as shown in Model 5 and Model 6 as shown in Table 6 .

5 Discussion

Internet dependency, which leads to internet addiction, is rising among university students and has negative effects on their lives and academic performance. The 16 to 24 age group prefers to establish communications via social networks on the internet instead of face-to-face communication and establishing close relations with other individuals. This is a critical time in their social and emotional development that witnesses the highest internet usage, and thus, exposes them to more risks. University students are in the risk group due to problematic internet use in effort to seek acceptance and approval leading to risky decision-making that poses a threat to health and life in the form of excessive alcohol and cigarette use, drug abuse, driving recklessly, failure to fasten seatbelts etc. Family relations and academic life are also affected by increasing internet use. In addition, excessive social media use can cause emotional and identity problems ( 7 ). Medium to intermediate dependence on social media addiction was found in that study. Intermediate dependence in the virtual tolerance sub-scale and between low dependence and intermediate dependence in the virtual communication sub-scale was measured. Students living with friends were more addicted to social media. The social media addiction was found in students spending more than 7 h on social media (mean = 63,66) and visiting social media more than 15 times per day. Students with 15 visits per day and 11–15 visits per day, respectively, had the lowest satisfaction. The level of social media addiction should be decreased by spending less time and lowering visits to social media in order to improve productivity among university students.

Findings indicate that those who use social media for a longer time (4–7 h a day) are more addicted ( 50 ). 82,39% of students in Iran had various levels of addiction ( 51 ) and 95% of university students spend more than 4 h on social media in Malaysia ( 52 ). Some sources indicate that spending 4–5 h per day on the internet is considered an addiction. Most users spend a minimum of 3 h on social media, which could lead to some mental health problems. About 90% of university students have used social media for more than 4 years and 50,3% of them used it for more than 4 h daily at university. As students spend more time on social media and make more visits to social media networks daily, they become more addictive and join the risk group. Thus, it can be concluded that there is a moderate level of addiction among the University students ( 3 , 4 , 21 ). According to the results of the survey involving 114 students from Harran University in Türkiye, 36% of the students used the internet for 3 to5 h per day and 36% used the internet for 5 hours or more per day ( 53 ). This present study found that 46,5% of the university students spent between 1 and 3 h on social media, 28,9% of them spent between 4 and 6 h and 13,6% spent more than 7 h, while 42,5% of them have the potential of becoming addictive to social media, which is less than the previous years. Meanwhile, 34,1% of them visited the social media platform more than 15 times per day, 14,3% of them between 11 and 15 times and 30,3% of them between 6 and 10 times. About half of them visited social media platforms more than 10 times a day, indicating that they check their social media frequently (See Table 2 ).

Self-efficacy is an effective social behavior that strongly predicts students’ academic achievements and also acts as an important protective factor for psychological adjustment and health. It can also predict how people respond to an external threat or opportunity. Relevant responses toward problems are based on personal behaviors and efforts to achieve one’s objectives. Adopting positive problem-focused coping strategies by persons with high self-efficacy plays a critical role in stress relief ( 54 ). Students with high academic self-efficacy can evaluate their own academic performance compared to their classmates. The average grade obtained by 218 students in the above study was 71,17 or CC (Pass), based on Türkiye grade scoring. Overall, they possess middle level academic success and performance, even though they have high self-efficacy.

More than one-third of students experienced mental health problems even in the pre-pandemic period, where students were at a greater risk of depression than the general population ( 35 ). There was a 55,0% depression rate among university students in Türkiye during the second wave of COVID-19 ( 1 ), whereas, 36,8% of them had poor mental health compared to 25% with average health during the pre-pandemic era in the United Kingdom ( 55 ). Meanwhile, 74% of students were affected by depression in Bangladesh ( 56 ). The prevalence of depression was 40,3% during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic among university students in nine countries, with the highest prevalence in Türkiye (44,80%) and the lowest in Germany (4,80%). Several risk factors affected the declining mental health of students that female gender, younger age, and lower income were risk factors ( 35 ). In general, they had a moderate depression level and 51,3% of them (PHQ > 10) had some kind of depression in that study. Students from the lower income group were found to be affected by a volatile and worsening economic situation, high social media addiction and loneliness, which could the reason for this high prevalence. Conversely, students are still in the recovery stage and post-COVID-19 effects are the main reason for these mental health problems (See Table 3 ).

People can use the internet to overcome interpersonal relationship problems and cater for their intensive need of acceptance ( 57 ). Lack of social support can result in depression and anxiety symptoms and users try to prevent feelings of loneliness through social media by changing their social mood and avoiding problems in their daily life. Suicidal ideation is related to addiction behavior, depression, jealousy and emotional stress and is apparent among university students. The relationship between suicidal ideation and problematic use of the internet was measured. Cyber-victimization, online bullying, cyberbullying, explicating images without prior consent, name-calling, rumor mongering and harassment can lead to suicidal ideation ( 4 ). 8,6% of them thought about dying almost every day and 13.6% of them thought about it for more than half a day in that study. Low level social support from friends and family members (65,4%) can be another source of high levels of depression and suicidal ideation.

Some of the factors leading to higher internet addiction are lower age, gender (female), student, low education level, low income, low self-esteem, and narcissistic parameters ( 3 ). There were no differences in problematic internet use based on gender ( 23 ). Female students in Bangladesh showed 1,8 times more depression symptoms ( 56 ). It was also found that there was higher internet addiction among males but no gender differences in relation to problem-solving skills were found ( 16 ). The level of addiction was higher in younger Polish women ( 11 ). Aslan and Yaşar ( 3 ) applied the survey technique involving university students before the COVID-19 pandemic and found that male students spent more time on social media. It also found that males were more addicted compared to females ( 53 ). Bodur and Korkmaz ( 58 ) found that males used more social media, while Chung et al. ( 59 ) found that females spent more time on social media with a higher level of internet addiction. Problematic use of social media, such as being more unsocial or playing video games, was seen in males, while females were more addicted to social interaction ( 60 ). This present study found no significant differences in social media addiction based to gender. However, males had a higher mean of the internet addiction and females (43%) spent slightly more time (> 4 h) compared to males (41,2%). Furthermore, no significant differences were found for problem-solving skills, loneliness, and academic self-efficacy according to gender in the study. Differences were found in depression and satisfaction scales according to gender. Males were more satisfied (medium level of satisfaction) compared females and females were more depressed (See Table 4 ).

Loneliness refers to having limited social relationships. Higher scores on internet use indicate a higher degree of loneliness ( 57 ). Loneliness is correlated with internet addiction, and severe depressive symptoms were found among young Polish women ( 11 ). A positive relationship between students’ social media addiction levels and loneliness levels was found in Türkiye ( 61 ). There was a positive association between depression as well as emotional and social loneliness among university students ( 62 ). The academic performance of dependent students (lonelier) compared to other students on the internet was four times lower than non-dependent students’ performance ( 63 ). Negative correlation between social self-efficacy, loneliness and internet addiction, and a positive correlation between loneliness and internet addiction were found by Gazo et al. ( 64 ). Problem-solving training can be used as an intervention in parent–adolescent conflicts ( 17 ). Students from that study who used “ often to good ” (3,41 to 4,20) problem solving skills and the ‘determination during practice’ sub-group in that scale had the highest mean. They were slightly dissatisfied and experienced mild loneliness. Higher satisfaction, good problem-solving skills and social self-efficacy could counter depression and social media addiction.

Using social media for more than 5 h daily can lead to addiction and depression ( 12 ). Yearly or daily usage can have a positive correlation with social media addiction. Meanwhile, age was found to have a negative significant correlation with social media addiction ( 3 ). Using internet for research purposes leads to a higher proficiency in problem-solving skills related to their profession and lower internet addiction ( 16 ). There is a significant negative correlation between problematic internet use and academic self-efficacy ( 7 ). A moderate negative relationship between internet addiction, self-efficacy and problem-solving skills and a positive higher correlation between self-efficacy perceptions and problem-solving skills were found by İbili ( 16 ). The negative effect of internet addiction on adolescents’ later academic achievement was found to reduce academic achievement in China by reducing academic engagement and increasing dissatisfaction with learning activities ( 65 ). Internet addiction can cause psychological problems by decreasing academic achievement among adolescents ( 66 , 67 ). There was a significant negative correlation between satisfaction with life and depression ( 1 ) and there was a significant negative correlation between academic self-efficacy and problematic internet use among university students in Karadeniz Technical University in Türkiye. Academic self-efficacy is a predictor of problematic internet usage ( 23 ). Social media addiction has the highest correlation with time spent on social media, loneliness and depression, while a significant negative correlation with academic self-efficacy, problem solving skills and life satisfaction that improved academic self-efficacy, problem solving skills and life satisfaction leading to better academic performance by decreasing the time spent on social media.

Students’ academic performance is negatively affected by social media addiction in the linear regression model ( 51 ). A stressful lifestyle can be alleviated by developing problem solving skills ( 17 ). Students’ GPA was significantly affected by social media addiction, whereby a higher level of addiction led to a decrease in the GPA as well as spending more time on social media instead of academic tasks and responsibilities ( 52 ). Problem solving (effects of solving and analyzing a problem), gender and classmates are predictors of GPA (dependent variable), since classmates is a negative predictor and gender (female) is a positive predictor. Problem solving (alternative solutions research), satisfaction with life and loneliness are predictors of satisfaction with academic performance, compared to classmates who are more satisfied with high problem-solving skills, show better academic success. Problem solving skills (alternative solutions research), satisfaction with life, classmates, and living alone are e significant positive predictors of academic self-efficacy, while loneliness is a significant negative predictor of academic self-efficacy among the University students.

Healthy internet use is important for students in efforts to achieve their objectives. Openness, loneliness and depression are three most important dimensions that describe social media addiction ( 4 ). Students (in Türkiye) facing social media addiction can be predicted based on their social anxiety and happiness levels through regression analysis ( 61 ). Self-control affects social media addiction by influencing GPA ( 68 ). Youth’s problem-solving skills can be developed with training programs ( 18 ). Interpersonal relationships, academic adjustment, as well as social and learning self-efficacies can be effective ways of handling smartphone addiction ( 54 ). Self-help and mindfulness, psycho-pharmacological therapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy, motivational interviewing and promoting clear use of policies and norms in schools and organizations through rewards and healthy use of social media are some of the methods used for overcoming social media addiction ( 4 ). Internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy intervention was found to be effective in dealing with students’ depression symptoms that affect academic performance ( 69 ). Conducting regular sporting activities can decrease internet addiction levels, while positively affecting problem-solving skills ( 16 ). An increase in physical activities by university students can lead to a decrease in mental health problems and internet addiction ( 70 ). Awareness among students regarding mental health services and the negative effects of social media on academic performance can be increased by healthcare providers and mental health services. Mental health literacy and stigma should be a part of the curriculum in universities ( 30 , 70 ). Loneliness is a negative predictors on academic self-efficacy and satisfied with academic performance dependent variables based on our regression models that students are to be socialized and their Problem solving skills are to be improved. Analyzing the problem encountered, effects of the solution of the problem and alternative solutions research problem solving skills can be developed to improve the academic success of students and their resilience against mental problems. Ways to improve their satisfaction with life is also a positive predictor of both academic self-efficacy and satisfied with academic performance dependent variables. 1.class students need serious consultancy during their first year adaption and males are to encouraged to get better GPA.

5.1 Limitations of the study and directions for future researches

Current findings regarding social media addiction, loneliness, depression, life satisfaction, problem solving skills, and academic self-efficacy among university students will contribute to a detailed understanding of students’ academic success. There are some limitations to this present study, whereby results pertaining to the participant level were obtained via self-reported questionnaires relying on information obtained from students, which could lead to bias and thus, threaten the study’s validity. Participants comprised solely of students from Bingöl University, hence, curtailing the ability to generalize the results. The findings can help to develop better academic programs and cognitive-behavioral therapies, especially by psychologists, for students by developing social skills training with the aim of improving social relations among students.

This study can be repeated with other student populations. Other variables, such as problematic internet use, religiosity and personal traits, should also be investigated. Future research with a greater sampling scope and size is recommended to verify the results of this study. This study can be extended with different samples and different measures to determine and compare other addictive behaviors. Future studies can examine the interactive effects between stressful life events and diverse personal and psychological variables, whereby parent–child relationships, intimate relationships, and using cultural backgrounds with family demographic factors such as income, education level etc., can be measured.

This study highlights the vital function of engagement in learning activities and its relationship with internet addiction, depression etc., while adolescents’ academic achievements negatively influenced by internet addiction can be prevented by adopting protective factors and norms to reshape students’ behaviors. This would lead to the healthy use of social media and the coordination of families, governments and universities.

6 Conclusion

Moderate level social media addiction, especially higher virtual tolerance, mild loneliness and moderate depression levels among students was evaluated. Although they had high academic self-efficacy and problem-solving skills, they showed moderate GPA scores in reality and high levels of mental health problems. Students who visited social media platforms more than 15 times per day had the lowest satisfaction. Females were more depressed than males but males had higher social media addiction and loneliness. Students living with friends were more addictive based on the type of accommodation. Using more than 7 h of social media and visiting social media more than 15 times per day were the main factors leading to social media addiction. Students living with friends, female students, spending more time and visiting social media more frequently were risk factors for students’ academic success.

Students’ performance can be increased with higher levels of academic self-efficacy, problem solving skills and satisfaction with life. Problem solving skills, such as contemplating the effects of the solution on the problem and gender (female), are positive factors leading to higher GPA scores. Students with alternative solutions to research skills and higher satisfaction show better academic performance. Policymakers (governments, university management etc.) must initiate steps to decrease social media addiction and improve students’ performance by improving their problem-solving skills. Daily usage of social media can be decreased by banning or limiting social media usage in universities. Feelings of loneliness can be prevented if students can increase their social skills and participate in university activities. Group-style homework and training can be developed. Depressed students need supports from friends, family as well as psycho-social and consulting centers in their respective universities.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author/s.

Ethics statement

This study was approved by the Bingöl University Health Scientific Research and Publication Board for the research (protocol N. E.74742), in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their consent to participate in this study.

Author contributions

IA: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. HP: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the respondents (students) for participating in this questionnaire survey.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: academic self-efficacy, social media addiction, loneliness, depression, life satisfaction, problem solving skills

Citation: Aslan I and Polat H (2024) Investigating social media addiction and impact of social media addiction, loneliness, depression, life satisfaction and problem-solving skills on academic self-efficacy and academic success among university students. Front. Public Health . 12:1359691. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2024.1359691

Received: 09 February 2024; Accepted: 26 June 2024; Published: 08 July 2024.

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Copyright © 2024 Aslan and Polat. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Imran Aslan, [email protected]

† ORCID: Imran Aslan, https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5307-4474 Hatice Polat, https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0444-3717

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