case study on organizational change and development

Short Case Study on Change Management

A short case study on change management can be very helpful in learning how to manage change effectively. In today’s business world, change is constantly happening and it can be very difficult to keep up.

Having a solid understanding of change management is essential for any manager or business owner.

A good case study will show you how one company successfully managed a major change and what lessons can be learned from their experience.

By studying short case study on change management, you will gain valuable insights into the importance of planning, communication, and employee involvement when managing change.

You will also learn about the different stages of change and how to overcome resistance to change.

These are all important topics that any manager or business owner should be familiar with. Learning about them through a short case study is an excellent way to gain a better understanding of these concepts.

Here are 05 short case studies on change management that offer you valuable insights on managing change.

1. Adobe- a transformation of HR functions to support strategic change

Many a times external factors lead to changes in organisational structures and culture. This truly happened at Adobe which has 11,000 employees worldwide with 4.5 billion $ yearly revenue.

Acrobat, Flash Player, and Photoshop are among the well-known products of Abode.

Due to new emerging technologies and challenges posed by small competitors Adobe had to stop selling its licensed goods in shrink-wrapped containers in 2011 and switched to offering digital services through the cloud. They gave their customers option of downloading the necessary software for free or subscribing to it every month rather than receiving a CD in a box.

The human resource (HR) function also took on a new role, which meant that employees had to adjust to new working practices. A standard administrative HR function was housed at Adobe’s offices. However, it was less suitable for the cloud-based strategy and performed well when Adobe was selling software items. 

HR changed its role and became more human centric and reduced its office based functions.

The HR personnel did “walk-ins,” to see what assistance they might offer, rather than waiting for calls. With a focus on innovation, change, and personal growth, Adobe employed a sizable percentage of millennials.

Instead of having an annual reviews, staff members can now use the new “check-in” method to assess and define their own growth goals whenever they find it necessary, with quick and continuous feedback. 

Managers might receive constructive criticism from HR through the workshops they conduct. The least number of employees have left since this changed approach of HR.

Why did Adobe’s HR department make this change? Since the company’s goals and culture have changed, HR discovered new ways to operate to support these changes.

2. Intuit – applying 7s framework of change management 

Steve Bennett, a vice president of GE Capital, was appointed CEO of Intuit in 2000. Intuit is a provider of financial software solutions with three products: Quicken, TurboTax, and QuickBooks, which have respective market shares of 73 percent, 81 percent, and 84 percent. 

Despite this market domination, many observers believed Intuit was not making as much money as it could.

Additionally, the business was known for making decisions slowly, which let rivals take advantage of numerous market opportunities. Bennett desired to change everything.

In his first few weeks, he spoke with each of the top 200 executives, visited the majority of Intuit’s offices, and addressed the majority of its 5,000 employees.

He concluded that although employees were enthusiastic about the company’s products, internal processes weren’t given any thought (based on Higgins, 2005).

He followed the famous Mckinsey 7S Model for Change Management to transform the organization. Let’s see what are those changes that he made:

By making acquisitions, he increased the products range for Intuit.

He established a flatter organizational structure and decentralized decision-making, which gave business units more authority and accountability throughout the whole product creation and distribution process.

To accomplish strategic goals, the rewards system was made more aligned to strategic goals.

He emphasized the necessity of a performance-oriented focus and offered a vision for change and also made every effort to sell that vision.

He acknowledged the commitment of staff to Intuit’s products and further strengthened process by emphasizing on quality and efficiency of his team.

Resources were allotted for learning and development, and certain selected managers were recruited from GE in particular skill categories, all to enhance staff capabilities concerning productivity and efficiency.

Superordinate goals:

Bennett’s strategy was “vision-driven” and he communicated that vision to his team regularly to meet the goals.

Bennett’s modifications led to a 40–50% rise in operating profits in 2002 and 2003.

8,000 people worked for Intuit in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, India, and other nations in 2014, and the company generated global revenues of nearly $5 billion.

3. Barclays Bank – a change in ways of doing business

The financial services industry suffered heavily during mortgage crisis in 2008. In addition to significant losses, the sector also had to deal with strict and aggressive regulations of their investing activities.

To expand its business, more employees were hired by Barclays Capital under the leadership of its former chief executive, Bob Diamond, who wanted to make it the largest investment bank in the world. 

But Barclays Capital staff was found manipulating the London Inter-Bank Offered Rate (LIBOR) and Barclays was fined £290 million and as a result of this the bank’s chairman, CEO, and COO had to resign.

In an internal review it was found that the mindset of “win at all costs” needed to be changed so a new strategy was necessary due to the reputational damage done by the LIBOR affair and new regulatory restrictions. 

In 2012, Antony Jenkins became new CEO. He made the following changes in 2014, which led to increase of 8% in share price.

Aspirations

The word “Capital” was removed from the firm name, which became just Barclays. To concentrate on the U.S. and UK markets, on Africa, and on a small number of Asian clients, the “world leader” goal was dropped.

Business model

Physical commodities and obscure “derivative” products would no longer be traded by Barclays. It was decided that rather than using its customers’ money, the business would invest its own.

Only thirty percent of the bank’s profits came from investment banking. Instead of concentrating on lending at high risk, the focus was on a smaller range of customers.

In place of an aggressive, short-term growth strategy that rewarded commercial drive and success and fostered a culture of fear of not meeting targets, “customer first,” clarity, and openness took precedence. Investment bankers’ remuneration was also reduced.

Beginning in 2014, branches were shut, and 19,000 jobs were lost over three years, including 7,000 investment banking employees, personnel at high-street firms, and many in New York and London headquarters. £1.7 billion in costs were reduced in 2014.

There was an increase in customers’ online or mobile banking, and increased automation of transactions to lower expenses.  To assist customers in using new computer systems, 30 fully automated branches were established by 2014, replacing the 6,500 cashiers that were lost to this change with “digital eagles” who used iPads.

These changes were made to build an organization that is stronger, more integrated, leaner, and more streamlined, leading to a higher return on equity and better returns for shareholders. This was also done to rebuild the bank’s credibility and win back the trust of its clients.

4. Kodak – a failure to embrace disruptive change

The first digital camera and the first-megapixel camera were both created by Kodak in 1975 and 1986 respectively.

Why then did Kodak declare bankruptcy in 2012? 

When this new technology first came out in 1975, it was expensive and had poor quality of images. Kodak anticipated that it would be at least additional ten years until digital technology started to pose a threat to their long-standing business of camera, film, chemical, and photo-printing paper industries.

Although that prediction came true, Kodak chose to increase the film’s quality through ongoing advances rather than embracing change and working on digital technology.

Kodak continued with old business model and captured market by 90% of the film and 85% of the cameras sold in America in 1976. With $16 billion in annual sales at its peak, Kodak’s profits in 1999 was around $2.5 billion. The brand’s confidence was boosted by this success but there was complete complacency in terms of embracing new technology.

Kodak started experiencing losses in 2011 as revenues dropped to $6.2 billion. 

Fuji, a competitor of Kodak, identified the same threat and decided to transition to digital while making the most money possible from film and creating new commercial ventures, such as cosmetics based on chemicals used in film processing.

Even though both businesses had the same information, they made different judgments, and Kodak was reluctant to respond. And when it started to switch towards digital technology, mobile phones with in-built digital camera had arrived to disrupt digital cameras.

Although Kodak developed the technology, they were unaware of how revolutionary digitalization would prove to be, rendering their long-standing industry obsolete.

You can read here in detail Kodak change management failure case study.

5. Heinz   – a 3G way to make changes

Warren Buffett’s Berkshire Hathaway and the Brazilian private equity business 3G Capital paid $29 billion in 2013 to acquire Heinz, the renowned food manufacturer with $11.6 billion in yearly sales.

The modifications were made right away by the new owners. Eleven of the top twelve executives were replaced, 600 employees were let go, corporate planes were sold, personal offices were eliminated, and executives were required to stay at Holiday Inn hotel rather than the Ritz-Carlton when traveling and substantially longer work hours were anticipated. 

Each employee was given a monthly copy restriction of 200 by micromanagement, and printer usage was recorded. Only 100 business cards were permitted each year for executives.

Numerous Heinz workers spoke of “an insular management style” where only a small inner circle knows what is truly going on.

On the other side, 3G had a youthful team of executives, largely from Brazil, who moved from company to company as instructed across nations and industries. They were loyal to 3G, not Heinz, and were motivated to perform well to earn bonuses or stock options. 

“The 3G way,” a theory that 3G has applied to bring about change in prior acquisitions like Burger King, was the driving reason behind these modifications. Everything was measured, efficiency was paramount, and “nonstrategic costs” were drastically reduced. 

From this vantage point, “lean and mean” prevails, and human capital was not regarded as a crucial element of business success. It was believed that rather than being driven by a feeling of purpose or mission, employees were motivated by the financial gains associated with holding company stock.

Because it had been well-received by the 3G partners, those who might be impacted by a deal frequently saw a “how to” guide published by consultant Bob Fifer as a “must read.”

However, many food industry experts felt that while some of 3G’s prior acquisitions would have been ideal candidates for a program of cost-cutting, Heinz was not the most appropriate choice to “hack and slash.” The company had already undergone several years of improved efficiency and it was already a well-established player in the market.

In summarizing the situation, business journalists Jennifer Reingold and Daniel Roberts predicted that “the experiment now underway will determine whether Heinz will become a newly invigorated embodiment of efficiency—or whether 3G will take the cult of cost-cutting so far that it chokes off Heinz’s ability to innovate and make the products that have made it a market leader for almost a century and a half.” 

Final Words

A short case study on change management can be a helpful tool in learning how to effectively manage change. These case studies will show you how one company successfully managed a major change and what lessons can be learned from their experience. By studying these case studies, you will gain valuable insights into the importance of planning, communication, and employee involvement when managing change. These are all vital elements that must be considered when implementing any type of change within an organization.

About The Author

Tahir Abbas

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• 18 Organizational Development Examples From...

18 Organizational Development Examples From Companies

Organizational development (OD) meaning 

Why do companies implement an OD approach?

• Redefining organizational structures and reducing bureaucracy.
• Becoming more productive, cost-effective, and competitive.
• Expanding or altering the reach of a product or service.
• Adapting to internal shifts or market changes.
• Embracing digital transformation.
• Refining procedures and processes.
• Improving the work environment and people experience.

Organizational development examples

1. Techno-structural interventions

Examples of work and job design, 1. job enrichment at volvo, 2. 4-day work week at homerun, 3. organizational redesign at corning, 4. outsourcing by whatsapp, examples of organizational purpose and social impact, 1. lego’s corporate environmental initiative, 2. hope foods’ commitment to well-being.

2. Human resource management interventions

Examples of culture, employee engagement and experience, 1. employee experience rebuild at pwc.

2. Employer branding at Brother International

People development and talent, 1. upskilling at walmart, 2. leadership development at microsoft, 3. recruiting and developing leaders at marriott.

3. Strategic change interventions

Business transformation, 1. digital transformation at farmers insurance, 2. microsoft’s acquisition of linkedin, 3. the rebranding of dunkin’.

Performance and business impact

1. product discontinuation at hp, 2. performance management modifications at fedex singapore, 4 . human process interventions, 1. self-coaching at fujitsu ssl, team building, 1. virtual team building at myzone, key takeaways.

• Organizational development is an intentional method for making strategic changes within an organization to help it adapt and become more effective.
• Types of OD interventions : OD is carried out by implementing numerous interventions that can be put into the four categories of techno-structural, human resource management, strategic change, and human process.
• HR plays a significant role in OD : HR is intricately involved with OD and oversees the implementation of many interventions. HR must work hand-in-hand with OD teams or even take charge of initiating OD.

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Organizational Change and Development: A Case Study in the Indian Electricity Market

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• Pawan Budhwar ,
• Jyotsna Bhatnagar &
• Debi Saini  

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The present economic growth of India is largely an outcome of the liberalization of its economic policies in 1991. Since gaining independence in 1947, India adopted a “mixed economy” approach (emphasizing both private and public enterprise). This had the effect of reducing both entrepreneurship and global competitiveness. Despite the formalities of planning, the Indian economy reached its worst in 1990 and witnessed a double digit rate of inflation, decelerated industrial production, fiscal indiscipline, a very high ratio of borrowing to the GNP (both internal and external) and a dismally low level of foreign exchange reserves. The World Bank and the IMF agreed to bail out India at that time on the condition that it changed to a “free market economy” from what at the time was a regulated regime. To meet the challenges, the government announced a series of economic policies, followed by a new industrial policy supported by fiscal and trade policies. A number of reforms were made in the public sector that affected trade and exchange policy. At the same time, the banking sector together with activity in foreign investment was liberalized.

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Further reading.

Budhwar, P. and Varma, A. (2011a) (eds) Doing Business in India , London: Routledge.

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Budhwar, P. and Varma, A. (2011b) “Emerging HR Management in India and the way forward”, Organizational Dynamics , 40(4), pp. 317–25.

Article   Google Scholar  

Budhwar, P. and Varma, A. (2010) “Guest Editors’ Introduction: Emerging Patterns of HRM in the New Indian Economic Environment”, Human Resource Management , 49(3), pp. 343–51.

Budhwar, P. and Bhatnagar, J. (2009) The Changing Face of People Management in India , London: Routledge.

Book   Google Scholar  

Burnes, B. (2006) Managing Change , Harlow: FT Prentice-Hall.

Clardy, A. (2004) “Toward an HRD Auditing Protocol: Assessing HRD Risk Management Practices”, HumanResourceDevelopment Review , 3(2), pp. 124–50.

Kotter, J. P. and Cohen, D. S. (2006) The Heart of Change: Real-life Stories of How People Change their Organizations , Boston: Harvard Business School Press.

Ramnarayan, S. (2003) “Changing Mindsets of Middle-level Officers in Government Organizations”, Vikalpa , 28(4), pp. 63–76.

Sharma, R. R. (2007) Change Management: Concepts and Applications , New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill.

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Budhwar, P., Bhatnagar, J., Saini, D. (2012). Organizational Change and Development: A Case Study in the Indian Electricity Market. In: Rathbone, C.L.H. (eds) Ready for Change?. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137008404_9

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Organizational Change Management: What It Is & Why It’s Important

• 21 Jan 2020

Virtually every organization will, at some point, undergo a transition or change in order to remain viable and scale. Whether onboarding new employees, growing a department, or merging with another company, these changes can have a significant impact on the trajectory of your business.

Unfortunately, organizational change isn’t always easy to adapt to and can be intimidating for all team members who find themselves impacted by it.

As a manager tasked with overseeing organizational change or guiding your employees through it, it’s important to know what the process looks like and what to expect. Change, although challenging, can be a major opportunity for growth and career advancement, so long as you know how to approach it.

Here’s a primer on what organizational change management is and some tips for navigating it.

Access your free e-book today.

What is Organizational Change Management?

Organizational change refers to the actions in which a company or business alters a major component of its organization, such as its culture, the underlying technologies or infrastructure it uses to operate, or its internal processes. Organizational change management is the process of guiding organizational change to a successful resolution, and it typically includes three major phases: preparation, implementation , and follow-through.

What Causes Organizational Change?

Many factors make organizational change necessary. Some of the most common faced by managers include:

• New leadership at the helm of the company or within its departments
• Shifts in the organizational team structure
• The implementation of new technology
• The adoption of new business models

To ensure a smooth transition, it’s important to have a set organizational change management process that can be applied across various types of change.

Types of Organizational Change

Adaptive changes are small, incremental changes organizations adopt to address needs that evolve over time. Typically, these changes are minor modifications and adjustments that managers fine-tune and implement to execute upon business strategies. Throughout the process, leadership may add, subtract, or refine processes.

One example of an adaptive change is an organization that upgrades their computer operating systems from Windows 8 to Windows 10.

Transformational changes have a larger scale and scope than adaptive changes. They can often involve a simultaneous shift in mission and strategy, company or team structure, people and organizational performance, or business processes. Because of their scale, these changes often take a substantial amount of time and energy to enact. Though it's not always the case, transformational changes are often pursued in response to external forces, such as the emergence of a disruptive new competitor or issues impacting a company’s supply chain.

An example of a transformational change is the adoption of a customer relationship management software (CRM), which all departments are expected to learn and employ.

Many changes will fall somewhere between adaptive and transformational on the spectrum. For this reason, managers need to understand that the change process must be tailored to the unique challenges and demands of each situation.

Why Is Organizational Change Management Important?

Organizational change is necessary for companies to succeed and grow. Change management drives the successful adoption and usage of change within the business. It allows employees to understand and commit to the shift and work effectively during it.

Without effective organizational change management, company transitions can be unpredictable and expensive in terms of both time and resources. They can also result in lower employee morale and skill development.

A company’s reaction and adaptation to change is also a critical consideration for key stakeholders like investors, suppliers, and prospective employees when deciding whether to work with or for a company. As a result, a lack of effective change management can lead to an organization’s failure.

A Manager’s Role in Organizational Change

Within an organization, every employee has a different role in assisting with change. While many staff members may complete heavily detailed work, senior-level executives with longer tenure might have different goals. Even within management, leaders and managers perform different tasks.

Leaders, for example, have to be courageous by taking on risks. They need to look at the big picture and articulate high-level change to the company, explain why it’s occurring, and motivate people to support the transition. To be successful as a leader , you must be insightful and know who to put in charge of carrying out change processes.

Managers are more concentrated on making business transitions successful. They focus on implementing change by determining the discrete steps that need to happen and their sequence. Managers are also typically responsible for allocating resources, such as personnel, and determining how success is measured. Ideally, leaders will also be managers , but it’s the primary responsibility of a manager to know how to design, direct, and shape change processes.

To achieve this, you must have a wide array of management skills , such as:

• Effective communication , including actively listening to your team and colleagues
• A highly developed level of emotional intelligence
• Strong organizational skills
• Attention to detail
• Problem-solving and decision-making skills
• Delegating without micromanaging

Preparing for Organizational Change

To prepare for organizational change, it’s essential to first define the organizational change, understand why it’s critical, and garner support from your colleagues.

Then, create a roadmap that clearly articulates and measures success and explains how the business—and its employees, customers, and constituencies—will be affected.

Ensure the process plan aligns with business goals and outlines the implementation and sustainability of the organizational change. Note what challenges may arise and be flexible enough to adjust accordingly. Be sure to celebrate small victories along the way.

Change management doesn’t stop once you’ve successfully executed an organizational transition. Both during and after the process, you need to continuously assess outcomes, track performance to goals, train employees on new methodologies and business practices, and readjust goals as necessary to increase the likelihood of success.

Developing the Skills You Need to Manage Organizational Change

Many managers experience organizational change throughout their careers. By learning how to preempt and address the challenges associated with change, you can ensure you’re equipped with the skills and knowledge needed to manage it.

If you’re looking for opportunities to improve your organizational change management abilities, enrolling in an online management course, like Management Essentials , is one option that can provide you with real-world skills, teach you common business strategies, and prepare you to handle any transitional challenge that comes your way.

Do you want to become a more effective leader and manager? Download our free leadership and management e-book to find out how. Also, explore our online leadership and management courses to learn how you can take charge of your professional development and accelerate your career.

This post was updated on January 3, 2023. It was originally published on January 21, 2020.

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Transformational change: Theory and practice

A look at how transformational change themes apply in practice, with case studies providing practical examples

Explores how the themes on transformational change apply in practice

Our report,  Landing transformational change: Closing the gap between theory and practice  explores how the themes identified in earlier research apply in practice. Case studies from four organisations provide practical examples of how organisations have approached transformational change.

The report also includes recommendations that HR, OD and L&D professionals should consider for their organisations and their own skill set, if they are to be successful expert initiators and facilitators of transformational change.

Whilst these findings and case studies are UK-based, the broader trends and implications should be of interest wherever you are based.

Download the report and individual case studies below

Landing transformational change

This earlier report covers some of the thinking and innovative ideas in the field of change management that can help to land transformational change. Drawing on a comprehensive literature review on change management the report develops ten themes on transformational change practice to provide a platform of knowledge on designing, managing and embedding change essential for OD, L&D and HR professionals.

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Cases and Exercises in Organization Development & Change

• Donald L. Anderson - University of Denver, USA

"Has a number of timely case studies, including ones on non-profit and educational institutions."

An excellent book with lots of applied problems/case studies.

Good cases and excellent overall structure of the book. however, I was also looking for mini-cases

A well written book that has a number of useful cases and activities that will help to link theory to practice for change management and organisational development.

A mix of great, some useful exercises and cases though some seem to be a bit basic and perhaps out of date

Donald L. Anderson

Donald L. Anderson , Ph.D., University of Colorado, teaches organization development at the University of Denver and organization design at the University of Colorado, Boulder. He is a practicing organization development consultant and has consulted internally and externally with a wide variety of organizations, including Fortune 500 corporations, small businesses, nonprofit organizations, and educational institutions. Dr. Anderson’s research interest is in discourse in organizational and institutional settings, and his studies of organizational discourse and change have been published in journals such as the Journal of Organizational Change Management, Gestion , and Journal of Business and Technical Communication . He is the author of the text Organization Design: Creating Strategic and Agile Organizations (SAGE, 2019) and editor of the text Cases and Exercises in Organization Development & Change (2nd ed., SAGE, 2017).

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• > The Case for Case Studies
• > Using Case Studies for Organizational Learning in Development Agencies

Book contents

• The Case for Case Studies
• Strategies for Social Inquiry
• Copyright page
• Contributors
• Preface and Acknowledgments
• 1 Using Case Studies to Enhance the Quality of Explanation and Implementation
• Part I Internal and External Validity Issues in Case Study Research
• Part II Ensuring High-Quality Case Studies
• Part III Putting Case Studies to Work: Applications to Development Practice
• 9 Process Tracing for Program Evaluation
• 10 Positive Deviance Cases: Their Value for Development Research, Policy, and Practice
• 11 Analytic Narratives and Case Studies
• 12 Using Case Studies for Organizational Learning in Development Agencies
• 13 Connecting Case Studies to Policy and Practice

12 - Using Case Studies for Organizational Learning in Development Agencies

from Part III - Putting Case Studies to Work: Applications to Development Practice

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 May 2022

Sarah Glavery and her coauthors draw a distinction between explicit knowledge, which is easily identified and shared through databases and reports, and tacit knowledge, the less easily shared “know how” that comes with having carried out a task. The chapter explores ways to use case study preparation, as well as a case itself, as a vehicle for sharing “know how,” specifically with respect to program implementation. It considers the experiences of four different types of organizations that have used case studies as part of their decision-making as it pertains to development issues: a multilateral agency (the World Bank), a major bilateral agency (Germany’s GIZ), a leading think tank (Brookings), and a ministry of a large country (China’s Ministry of Finance), which are all linked through their involvement in the Global Delivery Initiative.

12.1 Introduction

This chapter considers how different types of development-focused organizations have introduced case studies into their operations, and explores the lessons from these experiences for other development organizations interested in using case studies to enhance their own implementation effectiveness. Footnote 1 At one level, of course, case studies will be used differently depending on the organizational context; as such, to fully exploit a case study’s potential it must align with an organization’s specific reality: its history, mission, mandate, and capability. Actually doing this, however, requires undertaking the complex task of integrating cases into idiosyncratic organizational structures, rules, regulations and processes, and aligning it with a corporate culture that, at least initially, may or may not be favorably disposed to ‘learning’ in this way. In the sections that follow, we provide a comparative analysis of how this task has been conducted in four different development organizations, focusing in particular on how they select, prepare, and utilize case studies for collective learning.

A concern from the outset, and one that some regard as a pervasive weakness of case studies, is how to prepare cases that are both faithful to the unique particularities of each intervention and yet potentially usable by practitioners working elsewhere, perhaps even in different sectors, regions, and scales of operation. Indeed, “But how generalizable is that?” is a common critique levelled against case studies as a research method, where the concern is that the case itself is neither randomly selected nor “representative” of a larger population, but rather “cherry picked” to support predetermined conclusions. As methodological and empirical issues, these concerns are addressed elsewhere in this volume. Footnote 2 For present purposes, we consider case studies not as “qualitative evaluations” nor as small-scale “impact assessments” of projects, but focus instead on their roles as diagnostic and pedagogical instruments within (and between) development agencies. In this sense, we consider how case studies are prepared and read in ways akin to their use in medicine, law, and public policy – which is to say, as instances of broader phenomena, wherein professionals use their seasoned experience (and, where appropriate, scientific knowledge) to learn from specific instance of how , why , where , and for whom particular outcomes emerged over the course of a project’s or policy’s implementation. If formal impact evaluations are concerned with assessing the “effects of causes” (e.g., Did this rice subsidy, on average, benefit the poor? Did that text message invoking sacred precepts increase credit card repayments?), then in this instance case studies primarily seek to discern the “causes of effects” (How was this village able to solve its water disputes so much more effectively than others? Why did that program for improving child nutrition fare so much better with younger mothers than older ones? Where were the weakest and strongest links in the implementation chain of this immunization program? Why do some development organizations seemingly learn more effectively than others?). Footnote 3 It is in responding to these latter concerns that case studies have a distinctive comparative advantage; in this sense they should be seen as a key complement to, not a substitute for, more familiar evaluation tools used to engage with and learn from development interventions.

In this spirit, our concern here is to work backwards from broader concerns about the conditions under which development organizations ‘learn’ (or seek to learn), with a view to considering the role that case studies play in this process. Our discussion proceeds as follows. Section 12.2 considers four broad factors that seem especially important for understanding how organizations (not just their individual staff members) learn – that is, modify and/or improve their procedures and products in the light of experience and evidence. Section 12.3 then considers how these four factors have been deployed in case studies as used by four different organizations engaged with development issues: the World Bank, Germany’s GIZ (Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit), the Brookings Institution, and China’s Ministry of Finance. Section 12.4 concludes by categorizing how these different organizations are using case studies to learn across four organizational levels.

12.2 Organizational Learning Within Development Organizations

How do development organizations learn? A reading of the literature suggests that four broad factors seem to be especially important for understanding whether and how such learning takes place: motivation, environment, knowledge type, and practical use. We explore each of these factors by responding to four related questions.

12.2.1 Do Development Agencies Have the Motivation to Learn?

What motivates organizations to learn and invest in learning, and why might case studies be a suitable tool for doing so? For private sector organizations operating in today’s globalized economy, the motivation is clear: they must ‘adapt or die’ – that is, they must continually change in response to their fast-moving environments or risk becoming irrelevant. Indeed, in business theory and practice, an organization’s capacity to learn, and to apply and communicate knowledge, is considered a key strategic capability and is thus fundamental to its ability to produce value through innovation, improved quality, and efficiency ( Reference Drucker Drucker 1994 ). Management specialist Peter Reference Senge Senge (1990) goes so far as to argue that the rate at which organizations learn may become the only sustainable source of competitive advantage; to capture this, he introduced the idea of a ‘learning organization’ – namely, an organization which actively cultivates certain characteristics to harness value from continuous learning.

For the most part, however, development organizations tend to be mission- or impact-driven rather than profit-driven. As such, they operate in a somewhat different environment and are influenced by different forces. These organizations may not ‘die’ if they do not adapt – the fate of large development agencies whose mandates derive from nation-states, for example, is ultimately determined by political criteria. As such, and because their very existence serves the purposes of different powerful groups, public and nonprofit development agencies are unlikely to decline, at least in the short term, no matter what their level of “performance” is deemed to be. However, if a key driver of learning in organizations is typically to improve performance ( Reference Fiol and Lyles Fiol and Lyles 1985 ), this can be a source of motivation common to all development organizations – mission-driven as well as profit-driven. So understood, for development agencies performance can be broadly defined by its key functions (e.g., client services, advocacy, distribution of funding, direct service delivery).

Factors both external and internal to the organization can help generate a strong need for learning which acts as an important motivator for action within an organization. Such a need generates the motivation to go from contentment (passive) to curiosity (actively seeking knowledge). A perceived need is therefore the antecedent to new learning ( Reference Scott Scott 2011 ). For development organizations in the current environment, there are many factors that may generate a learning ‘need’. External forces, including large global political agendas such as meeting the Sustainable Development Goals, may motivate a learning need as the organization considers how to respond; similarly, the emergence of influential new rival agencies, such as the New Development Bank, may create pressures where previously there were none. Internal factors may also generate a need: the desire to improve communication; to share lessons, build relationships and communicate; or to build a culture that is open to discussing challenges.

12.2.2 Is the Organization’s Environment Conducive to Learning?

Any learning initiative will take place in the wider context of the organization’s approach to learning and knowledge management. The capacity and openness to learn must be designed into the organization and, in turn, be reflected across its structures, functions, and processes. To do this, an organization, and especially its key managers, must first be open to “unlearning” established ways ( Reference Hedberg, Nystrom and Starbuck Hedberg 1981 ); indeed, Reference Inkpen and Crossan Inkpen and Crossan (1995 : 596) argue that “a rigid set of managerial beliefs associated with an unwillingness to cast off or unlearn past practices can severely limit the effectiveness of organization learning” (see also Reference Nonaka and Konno Nonaka and Konna 1998 ). More positively, Reference Zack Zack (1999 : 135) defines a firm’s knowledge strategy “as the overall approach an organization intends to take to align its knowledge resources and capabilities to the intellectual requirements of its strategy.” While knowledge may transfer in the normal course of activities, organizations often introduce processes and knowledge management systems that actively facilitate the key processes of knowledge creation, transfer, and retention ( Reference Argote, Beckman and Epple Argote, Beckman, and Epple 1990 ). Reference Schein Schein (1990) suggested that a group’s learning over time becomes encapsulated as the group’s culture: in other words, it is both internalized as a set of assumptions and externalized as group norms or values.

The use of case studies should therefore be considered in the context of the organization’s learning intent, strategy, and culture, and as one of a number of possible organizational learning tools or methods. The production of a case study involves not just a product but also a process which in itself can provoke learning at multiple levels of the organization. Key characteristics of such a process include:

Individual learning: Individuals have generated knowledge through their practices and they have learned how to overcome challenges. Organizations are motivated to capture the tacit knowledge held within individuals in the system and to share this knowledge. Case studies are one tool which can be used to approach this task.

Group learning: Group engagement with producing a case study. Case studies can be used to engage individuals within a group in reflecting together, capturing the group’s knowledge and generating shared insights.

Organizational learning: Retention of knowledge within the organization. The case study process is a way of attempting to codify and share knowledge. Members of the organization can then access this knowledge through the case studies, which can be used to initiate and inform discussion. Learning at the organizational level typically requires support from the organization’s authorities.

Interorganizational learning: Case studies are shared between organizations to foster the collective learning of a wider community of practice. Knowledge is transferred through a learning network by the development of shared processes/systems. Creating a network expands the reach of any particular initiative.

We will categorize this multilevel learning as IGOIL (individual, group, organizational and interorganizational learning), where different institutions may operate actively on one or more levels relevant to their learning strategy.

12.2.3 What Types of Knowledge are Captured by Case Studies?

Drawing on the early work of Reference Polanyi Polanyi (1966) , Reference Nonaka Nonaka (1994) distinguishes between two types of knowledge: explicit knowledge, which is easily identified and codified; and tacit knowledge, which is what we know but cannot easily describe, and relates to both cognitive capability (‘know what’) and action (‘know how’). Explicit knowledge can be shared and integrated via reports, databases, and lectures, whereas sharing tacit knowledge occurs through dialogue and practice. One can acquire and convey explicit knowledge about a bicycle (its wheels, frame, etc.) through study, but one only acquires the tacit knowledge required to ride the bicycle by persistent practice (i.e., by falling over many times until one’s brain figures out how to stay upright).

There is a lot of technical knowledge within development organizations, and a corresponding familiarity with discussing and recording what was done in a given situation in an attempt to discern and capture ‘best practice’. The case studies discussed in this chapter intend instead to capture knowledge about the way that things are done: ‘the how’ of implementation rather than ‘the what’ of end results. This type of knowledge is often held within an individual (or team) who has implemented or supported implementation of a program. From the social constructionist perspective on learning, Reference Cook and Brown Cook and Brown (1999) suggest that this type of knowledge is acquired “as people wrestle with the intricacies of real world challenges and improvise a way to a solution” (Brown 2011: 6). From this perspective, learning depends on social interaction and collaboration: one person’s knowledge is co-dependent on the contributions of peers and must be negotiated with them. Knowledge about ‘the how’ is often tacit, context specific, and complex; factors relating to behavior, politics, and institutions influence the process. This is difficult to capture as the more we try to codify tacit knowledge the more it loses its context; perhaps it can only be recorded to a degree. Case studies attempt to capture some of this type of knowledge through alternative devices (such as via narrative form and personalization).

The cases discussed in this chapter are written with a specific focus on ‘delivery challenges’ (see Box 12.1 ); they describe situations where groups wrestle with and sometimes overcome delivery challenges. By sharing this type of knowledge, it is thought that others in the organization may gain inspiration for wrestling with their own real-world challenges. The organization’s culture will influence the openness of its members to capturing and discussing this type of knowledge – that is, knowledge relating to challenges and failures rather than just success stories.

Box 12.1 Defining ‘Delivery Challenges’

Delivery challenges are the nontechnical problems that hinder development interventions and that prevent practitioners from translating technical solutions into results on the ground. They are intimately related to development challenges, how interventions are implemented, and organizational issues. Delivery challenges should be the answer to the following questions: Why did intervention X , aimed at solving the development challenge Y , not work or not achieve its full potential? What were the main obstacles that intervention X faced during its implementation?

12.2.4 How Do Development Organizations Enhance the Practical Use of Case Studies?

It is widely accepted that learning requires changes in both cognition (knowing) and behavior (doing) ( Reference Argyris Argyris 1977 ; Reference Crossan, Lane and White Crossan, Lane, and White 1999 ; Reference Garvin Garvin 1993 ; Reference Hedberg, Nystrom and Starbuck Hedberg 1981 ; Reference Stata, Almond, Schneier, Russell, Beatty and Baird Stata and Almond 1989 ). As such, the practical value of using case studies lies not just in documenting the end product (what was achieved) but also the processes involved in getting there (how the end product was achieved). An advantage of the type of case study described in this chapter is that it remains close to practice. The cases capture stories of practice and should assist practitioners in implementing their work, thereby helping the organization achieve its mission.

Case studies can provide direct learning opportunities for practitioners to gain understanding of specific types of implementation challenges and how they were tackled, and/or to increase knowledge about specific development contexts. They aim to provide knowledge in a context-sensitive manner (unlike ‘best practices’). Since this type of knowledge is often best shared in person, additional value can be gained from the case study by using it as a catalyst to spark dialogue around implementation issues between practitioners within and between both sectors and organizations. As the focus is on challenges encountered during implementation, use of this type of case study may also contribute to wider discussions in an organization about challenges, including failures, and how to learn from them. Dissemination and promotion of engagement with case studies are therefore important activities that should take into consideration the specific audience, organizational context, and culture. Knowledge management systems which incorporate the compiling and coding of cases are a useful resource; however, it may not be sufficient to just share a case study with colleagues. Instead, learning platforms and opportunities should be designed with the intended audience in mind; for example, structured discussions and learning events may be appropriate mechanisms to translate knowledge into practice.

12.3 Using Case Studies for Organizational Learning in Four Development Agencies

Organizations have different ways of curating, documenting, and mobilizing knowledge. Generating and using case studies as a tool for organizational learning requires a considerable investment of an organization’s time and resources, and different organizations have deployed different approaches. This section presents the experiences of four different organizations engaged with development issues – a multilateral agency (the World Bank), a major bilateral agency (Germany’s GIZ), a leading think tank (Brookings Institution), and a key national ministry of a large developing country (China’s Ministry of Finance) – as they have developed their use of case studies within their individual contexts. Reflecting on the experience of these different types of organizations may assist other organizations in their decisions about whether and how best to incorporate case studies.

The organizations were selected on the basis of their participation in the Global Delivery Initiative (more on this below) as well as the type of organization they represent. They were assessed via oral interviews as well as complementary desktop research of secondary material. Based on this assessment, the chapter will now examine how the motivation for organizational learning, managing knowledge, and the use of case studies in managing knowledge can vary among different types of development organizations.

All of the four organizations are linked through their involvement in the Global Delivery Initiative (GDI; described below – see Box 12.2 ) and all have developed case studies and shared them through the GDI network, which allows for some comparison between methods and approaches used.

Box 12.2 Case studies and the Global Delivery Initiative

The Global Delivery Initiative (GDI) was a joint effort by multiple organizations to create a collective and cumulative evidence base on the ways in which challenges encountered during the delivery of development interventions are addressed. The GDI supported the science of delivery Footnote 4 by building on the experience of its partners; connecting perspectives, people, and organizations across sectors and regions; and ensuring that staff and clients have the knowledge they need for effective implementation (see Reference Gonzalez and Woolcock Gonzalez and Woolcock 2015 ). From the outset, the GDI deployed analytical case studies as its primary tool for acquiring, assessing, and disseminating knowledge on implementation dynamics: how particular teams, often implementing complex projects in difficult circumstances, successfully identify, prioritize, and resolve the problems that inherently accompany delivery.

In addition to producing case studies (and sharing them through its Global Delivery Library), the GDI convened partners to facilitate sharing of experiences and lessons learned on delivery; provided support to practitioners in member organizations as needed; trained prospective case writers; and identified common delivery challenges to provide support to practitioners. The goal was not to identify prescriptive universal ‘best practice’ solutions, but rather to share particular instances of how common problems were solved, with the expectation that these solutions could be adapted elsewhere as necessary by those who face similar challenges. Knowing that others have faced and overcome similar challenges can also be an important source of ideas and inspiration. Indeed, all professional communities – from brain surgeons to firefighters – have forums of one kind or another for sharing their experiences and soliciting the advice of colleagues as new challenges emerge; similarly, managers and front-line implementers of development projects should have ready access to people and materials that can help enhance their skills and effectiveness.

The steps by which a GDI case study was prepared emerged through an iterative process. The common principles underpinning the preparation of a GDI case study centered on treating it as an instance of applied research: beginning with a thorough desk review (documenting the project’s history, objectives, and performance to date); using this to generate specific questions pertaining to implementation challenges that formal documents cannot answer; and then outlining a pragmatic methodology whereby particular stakeholders (project staff, recipients, senior government counterparts, etc.) were interviewed and additional data generated. The case study was then prepared on the basis of this material ( Global Delivery Initiative 2015 ). Unique to the GDI case study methodology was that it evolved around development and delivery challenges. Instead of focusing on (project and/or program) objectives, case studies were built around challenges that were cross-sectoral and allowed for learning across sectoral disciplines. The assumption was that this approach would spark a discussion on nontechnical matters amongst technical experts as well as related stakeholders (e.g., governments). This approach varied considerably from general practice in development organizations, wherein learning was focused on project reports, excluding knowledge on the “how to.”

12.3.1 Motivation for Using Case Studies for Organizational Learning

The motivation for using case studies varies widely across all assessed organizations, depending on organizational objectives, structures, and processes. For example, instead of focusing on ‘best practices’, China’s Ministry of Finance (MoF) seeks to tell the story of China’s development over the past decades in ways that capture insights to inform and possibly adapt planned or ongoing interventions in other countries (as well as in China) – the MoF invests in case studies because they are perceived as a suitable product for knowledge-sharing between China and the rest of the world. A case study is considered an additional product in documenting project results and hence will be disclosed and distributed publicly. More formally, the MoF’s objective(s) when producing case studies are to:

Shed light on underexplored projects that China has conducted together with the World Bank, producing implementation knowledge on how these projects were carried out.

Identify a platform and adequate tools to document its development experiences in order to share these with the world, especially with other developing countries as part of a “South–South Cooperation” agenda.

Table 12.1 Overview of the four development organizations

The Millions Learning Program at the Center for Universal Education (Brookings Institution) decided that case studies were an appropriate strategy for capturing and sharing the process behind how education interventions around the world went to scale. In order to do so, the Millions Learning team globally scanned for programs and policies initiated by state and nonstate actors that demonstrated a measurable improvement in learning among a significant number of children or youth.

GIZ’s interest in case studies is to primarily address specific delivery challenges by first characterizing the most important failure in not closing the delivery gap, specifically the so-called “last mile delivery gap” for the poor. For example, in the case of water and sanitation programs, it is the missing access to clean water; in the case of the energy program, it is missing access to at least one important energy service. Case studies address more complex issues at the governance level, such as the functioning of public administration systems overseeing police forces. They also deal with more institutional/political types of failure, such as the missing rights-based approach to public administration (South Caucasus) or political interventions in police reforms (Central America). Success is therefore always presented as a substantive response to an identified failure in public service delivery.

GIZ’s motivation in curating knowledge via case studies has varied depending on the case study in question. Some examples follow:

Starting a more general reflection process on specific program approaches (Water/Sanitation; Community Policing)

Promoting an innovative intervention with proven scale-up (Prison Reform/Bangladesh)

Presenting a proven technical/organizational innovation (Metering System Bangladesh)

Supporting regional learning processes (Community Policing, Administration Law South Caucasus)

Marketing program approaches (Cashew Initiative; Energizing Development).

12.3.2 Organizational Learning Environment

Work on case studies is usually embedded in organizational contexts such as units explicitly dealing with organizational learning and/or knowledge management. These linkages are of high importance to ensure that case studies reach their intended target audiences within each organization. Organizational culture – or in this case, learning culture – is the “breeding ground” that highly impacts how case studies are perceived and acknowledged.

For China’s MoF, promoting adaptive learning is the core rationale for producing case studies; as such, case studies should at best include stories of successful interventions as well as course correction. However, changing the perspective from focusing on success to challenges has not always been easy for case writers in this context. To openly identify, assess, document, and communicate failure poses a distinct challenge in China’s otherwise “success-driven” environment.

Brookings’ Millions Learning project was initially interested in learning from case study “success stories” as well as from interventions that did not achieve their intended outcomes. However, the team quickly realized how challenging it was to publish “failure cases,” as people are often hesitant to publicly admit to failure. That is why in the project’s calls for case studies, the wording is highly important. For example, the team’s use of the term “failure” caused resistance, whereas the terms “challenges” and/or “course corrections” resulted in greater sharing among case study partners. Apart from semantics, the change in wording also strongly enhances the emphasis on learning and jointly improving from experiences (such as how challenges have been overcome).

To openly discuss challenges as well as failure is nothing new at GIZ, which for many years has been actively fostering a culture permitting failure to be openly addressed. Strategic evaluations, for example, are done with openness, highlighting deficits and failure. However, discussing failure and limitations is not yet a mainstreamed management attitude. GIZ acknowledged several common challenges to the process of writing case studies, as follows:

Identifying an appropriate delivery challenge

Updating the existing literature by internet research, and not just relying on existing institutional documents or reports

Identifying the most important causal mechanisms

Lack of recognition of the importance of governance structures/aspects at the national level

Comparative case studies require a different methodological approach. They are not an extension of a single case study

The process of organizing a case study depends on the specific demand and should not be too predetermined. (It is not the written document which counts, but the use of the knowledge that emerges by doing case studies.)

Unlike China’s MoF or the Millions Learning project at Brookings, the scope of GIZ’s case studies depends on the demand of its partner organizations and program managers. Consequently, GIZ’s approach to learning from case studies and its integration into corporate learning has several specific objectives:

To document the tacit implementation knowledge of different program interventions with different partner organizations. As a contribution to an internal reflection process, this type of case study needs a clear mandate from an internal network or community of practice and relies on the motivation of senior advisors to make their implicit knowledge explicit.

To introduce innovative approaches focused on a specific delivery gap at the country level, but also at regional or international levels. This type of case study is neither a policy document with general recommendations nor a detailed story of a specific program intervention at the country level. The case attempts to understand the most important causal mechanism responsible for the identified delivery challenge and to explain why and how the presented response to the delivery challenge has been effective.

To present a proven organizational or technical solution to an identified delivery gap mainly at the local or micro-level starts by explaining why the established approach has not been effective in closing the delivery gap. Such case studies usually focus on the incentive structure, in particular on incentives and behavioral attitudes of clients and partner organizations.

At the World Bank, the Independent Evaluation Group (IEG) has embarked on a series of reports to better understand how the Bank learns from its operations, embedded knowledge, and experiences (see IEG 2014 , 2015 ). As a general conclusion, these reports state that the World Bank can do much better in learning from the knowledge it produces and that flows through its practice. Footnote 5 The Bank agrees it needs a more strategic approach to learning, and that such strategy should adapt to the different learning needs identified by these reports (needs related to operational policies and procedures, human resources policies and practices, and promoting an institutional environment with incentives and accountability to foster knowledge and learning).

As part of a recent full-fledged institutional change management process, the World Bank has created different sectoral responsibilities to manage learning and knowledge to help overcome development challenges. The new arrangement aims to build capacity for staff and to encourage clients to learn, share, and use knowledge derived from experience in addressing operational challenges, including assessing whether and how such experiences can be adapted elsewhere and scaled. One of these institutional responsibilities resided in the Global Delivery Initiative, which sought to package such knowledge and lessons into case studies and generate methods to develop such case studies for use within and between development organizations. For GDI, case studies on delivery provided a clearer understanding of the sequence of events and balanced the perspectives of key actors, helping us untangle cause and effect. More specifically, such case studies sought to outline how interventions were implemented. They provided insights into the results and challenges of implementation, and helped to identify why a particular outcome occurred. They explored interventions in their contexts, and described what was done, why, how, for whom, and with what results.

12.3.3 Types of Knowledge Curated Via Case Studies

Case studies are an appropriate tool to capture knowledge in a structured yet context-sensitive manner, allowing for narratives to unfold and implementation processes to be revealed without over-simplifying. The type of knowledge curated via case studies, however, varies according to each organization assessed.

Guidelines produced by the World Bank were used as the methodological backbone of all case study work initiated by China’s MoF. However, the Ministry would like to maintain a certain flexibility regarding its case studies that allows experienced case writers to add their individual styles and additional details. This is because China’s MoF strives to capture knowledge through case studies that informs the design of new interventions (projects) in China, as well as to inform the implementation of ongoing interventions (scaling up). Therefore, the selection criteria for case studies are primarily based on the quality of the project the case study will focus on, and whether it entails concrete experiences that are worth sharing within and beyond China. In a small number of cases, the MoF also selects case studies based on research interest.

Apart from publishing a final report and upcoming stand-alone case studies, the Millions Learning team periodically blogs about its case studies, report findings, and topics. The team is planning to release a series of two-minute videos that feature voices of case study partners to bring each featured case study to life. The Millions Learning team also disseminates a quarterly newsletter, tweets daily, and presents its report and case study findings at international events and conferences every few months. The vast majority of the case studies (80 percent) contained empirical findings from fieldwork and were not limited to desk research only. Fieldwork was conducted by staff at the Center for Universal Education at the Brookings Institution and consultants via in-person or phone interviews. The same people who undertook the field visits and data collection wrote the case studies (in-house researchers as well as external consultants). What is required of case writers is familiarity with the case study methodology as well as the topic of the case, the specific intervention, and the country.

GIZ has broad experience in using case studies and uses an existing methodology. One of the main learnings is that case studies are only valid in specific contexts and that knowledge cannot be directly transferred from one context to another. For instance, once a case study is developed, its results are only used by a couple of colleagues to feed into the development of specific programs. At times meta-evaluations are carried out for specific topics, but these do not always lead to changes in action as the conclusions tend to be fairly general. This has led to the understanding in GIZ that case studies are a necessary tool for specific programs but that generalization of results is tricky and obtaining evidence is highly resource-intensive and often impractical. Use of case studies falls outside the default reporting procedures at GIZ. Reporting requirements are linked to specific program cycles and implementation processes, whereas case studies take a broader view of the social and political context as well as behavioral and institutional aspects. They usually cover a greater period than a program cycle, as they focus on how delivery gaps have been closed (and not only on the impact of a given program intervention).

At the World Bank, the current objective is to gain in-depth and systematic knowledge on the causal mechanisms that explain development results. Based on systematizing casual mechanisms (which includes the identification of the key factors and enabling conditions) that explain the pathway to change, the Bank can identify lessons learned that may usefully inform decision-making in other contexts and scales. The case study method is useful for hypothesis generation: drilling deep into experiences and tracing the casual mechanisms of change (see Reference Gerring Gerring 2017 ) helps to systematize the mechanisms behind implementation process.

GDI’s cases, then, worked with a focus on the ‘how to’ of implementation. The type of knowledge curated revolved around those factors and pathways of change that explain a particular development result. The purpose of gathering such knowledge was to provide practitioners with evidence that can help them inform their own decision-making. As stated in GDI’s fact sheets,

The case study method encourages researchers to ask questions about underexplored complex delivery problems and processes that development stakeholders routinely grapple with: what they are, when they arise, and how they might be addressed, including detailed accounts of delivery techniques, strategies, and experiences of the twists and turns of the implementation process. Systematically investigating delivery in its own right will make it possible to distill the common delivery challenges – the institutional, political, behavioral, logistical, and other issues that affect the delivery of specific interventions. It will also inform practitioners when they are faced with similar delivery challenges in their own programs and projects.

12.3.4 Use of Case Studies for Organizational Learning

Apart from disseminating case studies via the Global Delivery Library of GDI, China’s MoF intends to publish all its case studies via the library of the Shanghai University of Finance and Economics, which is one of the partner universities of MoF China. Conferences and events organized by local government officials are equally important channels for dissemination of insights gained via case studies. For instance, the Ningbo government is planning to include the Wetland project case study in a book about Ningbo’s experience in implementing World Bank projects, and it will be shared with participants at a conference hosted by the Ningbo government. Additionally, all case studies by the MoF will be disseminated via the internal online platform to all bureaus and agencies affiliated with the Ministry. It is too soon to provide evidence on whether case studies have been used by decision-makers and officers in government. However, there has been strong interest by project managers in China to use and learn from these case studies. The MoF does not foresee any resistance or challenges in disseminating case studies. Even so, it has adapted its approach following feedback from a GDI training course so that now a selected group of dedicated academics will produce all case studies; this has significantly increased the quality of the cases.

The explicit objective of the Millions Learning project is to use case studies to provide a picture of the players, processes, and drivers behind the scaling process in education. It is evident that the project is interested in leveraging knowledge in education across organizational and national borders. The project also intends to learn from and build on research on scaling up which may be relevant across sectors – for example, health and nutrition, as well as other disciplines. It has been clear from the start that the project did not intend to publish a compendium of case studies, but instead preferred to focus on patterns across case studies that should be documented and shared. Case studies are referred to in order to provide examples. The team was also clear from the project’s inception that documentation of knowledge is more a means to an end than a final product. Therefore, the Millions Learning report is considered to be the starting point for knowledge-sharing, dialogue, and, ideally, action around selected topics and areas in education. Hence, it is outward facing, inviting organizations and individuals to share information and contribute to further shaping the debate around global education. To achieve this, the initiative continuously reaches out to organizations, agencies, and individuals from around the world to contribute to and feed into the process through interviews, conventions, and draft report reviews. The Millions Learning team also published stand-alone case studies in 2016, providing a deeper dive into the individual case studies discussed in the Millions Learning report.

To date, ten case studies using the GDI methodology have been developed by GIZ. There has been exchange across organizational boundaries, but not yet at scale. However, regional programs have used case studies for reflection processes across boundaries. Selected case studies have been presented at regional seminars and used as reference material in the formation of new interventions. Coming back to the different types of case studies GIZ has developed, the following lessons can be derived from experiences in writing and using case studies so far:

Case studies presenting innovative approaches focus first on design and analyze the real implementation issues related to the chosen design. The context is more related to regional or international experiences in the area or issues presented, and the country context is mainly taken into account for understanding the differences with other experiences. Comparison is more important than detailed understanding of specific case-related aspects of implementation and management. The main focus is on understanding similarities and differences due to specific country conditions.

Case studies which summarize implementation knowledge focus more on implementation than on design since the design has been proven effective under different conditions and situations. Thus, the main interest is to understand what works under which conditions and what kind of tacit knowledge should be taken into account when approaches have to be transferred and adapted to a “new” context.

Case studies which present a proven organizational/technical solution to a delivery gap at the local level focus on the “how” of the incentive structure. Therefore, feedback loops with clients and real-time impact monitoring are important tools.

At the World Bank, the GDI was one of the most interesting and productive initiatives using case studies as a learning source. The model of case studies for the GDI provided comprised a critical body of knowledge with insights from the implementation process that helped practitioners identify those causal mechanisms explaining results in particular contexts. An understanding of the critical factors and enabling conditions in achieving results helped to inform projects operating outside the specific context of the case. The cases were also used as part of training sessions to develop the capacity of practitioners to use cases to inform their own practice and to populate the GDI’s case study repository, now managed by the Global Partnership for Effective Development Cooperation. Footnote 6 At the same time, the training agenda acted as a capacity building “train the trainers” strategy, with the aim of creating a global cadre of suitably qualified practitioners that not only gained skills as case writers but also benefited their own practice. Internally at the World Bank, the GDI trialed some case studies that were used as learning exercises for newcomer staff, in which they simulated how staff approach clients in different contexts and for different development problems.

12.4 Lessons Learned in Aligning Case Studies with an Organizational Learning Agenda

In the previous section we noted that case studies on development practice are used in different ways and with different levels of systematization for the purpose of organizational learning. Here we can make use of our IGOIL categorization to explain how case studies from these different organizations tap into different levels of learning.

As we see from Table 12.2 , different organizations use case studies for learning purposes, but such purposes serve different objectives. We can use the MoF of China and the World Bank as two examples with different purposes. For China’s MoF, learning is external facing, with partners that want to learn from the experiences captured in the Chinese case studies. This external interest may come typically from other governments that want to learn how the Chinese government dealt with a particular development challenge. Learning is done mainly at the interorganizational level: the MoF selects and systematizes experiences to be disseminated, and this external demand is what guides the capture and systematization of knowledge by the MoF.

Table 12.2 How different organizations use case studies for learning purposes

The World Bank’s approach is also very much about interorganizational learning, by sharing experiences among institutions on how to address development challenges. However, at the same time there is a specific focus on knowledge retention and organizational learning, with the goal of interpreting and using the knowledge collected through the case studies to support the organization’s business practices and improve performance. The GDI approach focused on contacting particular partners and using group discussion to advance this learning agenda; it also provided training for practitioners to not only become case writers, but to develop capacity at the individual level for transformational change by better understanding the change process.

Table 12.2 also points to some of the different motivations for using case studies as a learning tool. In the case of MoF China and Brookings, for instance, case studies are shown as exemplars of how to do things or ‘what and how things work’ in the spirit of sharing such knowledge outside the boundaries of the organization. At GIZ the focus is to provide practitioners, within and outside the organization, with examples of good practices. Finally, GIZ understands itself as a convener of experiences on transformational processes, with the role of promoting dialogue not only at the practitioner level but also across organizations and countries.

Table 12.2 and the preceding discussion shows that case studies do not need to use the same knowledge-sharing strategy or audience to inform development processes. Case studies can be used as a learning tool to improve performance and implementation in internal practices. They may never be shared directly with other practitioners or stakeholders outside of that organization, but this approach may still spread lessons indirectly through changes in behavior and practices as a consequence of insights captured in the case study. On the other hand, case studies can be used directly to inform counterparts of experiences that provide insights on what works and how. In this instance cases may have more impact on an external organization receiving such knowledge.

Finally, the use of case studies as a learning tool also generates some knowledge value in the process of developing the case study itself, in addition to the output. As has been shown with MoF China, the GDI, and to some extent GIZ, case writers are trained to focus on a problem-driven approach to tackle case studies. These case writers are also practitioners involved in development projects who may be keen to incorporate this approach in future development practices. Further capacity building at an individual level may also take place among the key stakeholders involved. As a case study’s interviewees, they play a role in articulating their experiences, which are captured as knowledge on the “how to” of implementation. As experienced through the preparation of case studies by the four organizations discussed in this chapter, such engagement provides these key stakeholders with a new perspective on how to tackle challenges throughout the implementation cycle, and in the process perhaps generates a change of mindset.

1 To this end, the chapter draws on our respective experiences with facilitating organizational learning in different institutional contexts, as well as formal interviews with several colleagues within and beyond our respective organizations.

2 For more formal discussions of this issue in this volume, see the chapters by Bennett ( Chapter 4 ) and Woolcock ( Chapter 5 ).

3 For further discussion on the distinction between studying the “effects of causes” and the “causes of effects” – a contrast first made in the nineteenth century by John Stuart Mill – see Reference Goertz and Mahoney Goertz and Mahoney (2012) .

4 “ The Science of Delivery is the collective and cumulative knowledge base of delivery know-how that helps practitioners make more informed decisions and produce consistent results on the ground. It is emerging from the recognition that not only sound technical knowledge is critical for effective interventions that impact people’s lives – we also need to improve our ability to combine technical expertise with on-the-ground delivery know how; and develop a more systematic, collaborative, and cumulative understanding not just of what to deliver, but also of how to deliver” ( Global Delivery Initiative, 2016a ).

5 In many respects these reports are a more recent follow-up to the famous Wapenhans Report of 1992 ( World Bank 1992 ), which explicitly sought to show that effective implementation was key to attaining development impact (and which argued that the World Bank was far from being a learning organization).

6 The GDI’s case studies are hosted in an online and open platform on delivery knowledge; they are available under the “Resource Type” category at www.effectivecooperation.org/search/resources .

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• Using Case Studies for Organizational Learning in Development Agencies
• By Sarah Glavey , Oliver Haas , Claudio Santibanez , Michael Woolcock
• Edited by Jennifer Widner , Princeton University, New Jersey , Michael Woolcock , Daniel Ortega Nieto
• Book: The Case for Case Studies
• Online publication: 05 May 2022
• Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108688253.013

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• Cases and Exercises in Organiz...

Cases and Exercises in Organization Development and Change.

Designed for courses in organization development and change, this is a comprehensive collection of case studies and exercises. Original cases are written by experts in the field and designed to focus very precisely on a specific topic in the OD process or intervention method. Each case is accompanie...

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• Description
• Table of Contents

Similar Items

• ""Cover""; ""Contents""; ""Subject Table of Contents""; ""Introduction""; ""Part I
• Cases in the Organization Development Process""; ""Case I
• Contracting for Success: Scoping Large Organizational Change Efforts""; ""case 2
• The Discipline Dilemma in Rainbow High School""; ""Case 3
• A Case of Wine: Assessing the Organizational Culture at Resolute Winery""; ""Case 4
• Utilizing Exploratory Qualitative Data Collection in Small Organizations: Consulting for the Multicultural Community Connections""; ""Case 5
• Identifying the Scope of Work at Dixie Weaving, Inc.""
• ""Case 6
• A Manufacturing Crisis in Bayrischer Silicon Products""""Case 7
• The Ivory Tower Opens Up""; ""Case 8
• Engineering Culture Change With Strategic Initiatives""; ""case 9
• Organization Cultureâ€? Diagnosis and Feedback""; ""Case 10
• Engaging Broader Leaders in the Strategic Planning of Lincoln Womenâ€?s Services""; ""Case 11
• Resistance to Change: Technology Implementation in the Public Sector""; ""Case 12
• Resistance to Change: Assessing Readiness for the Implementation of an Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) System at MedDev, Inc.""
• ""Case 13
• Where Do We Begin?: Selecting an Intervention at the Springfield County Office of Economic Development""""Case 14
• To Change Without Appearing to Change: Creating Stability in a Multichange/Multiresolution Government Agency""; ""Case 15
• When a Contract Is Not Enough""; ""Case 16
• Measuring Organizational Effectiveness in the Nonprofit Sector: The Case of the Community Action Network""; ""Case 17
• Not in Watertight Compartments: Service Quality Improvement and Organization Development""; ""Part II
• Cases in Organization Development Interventions""
• ""Case 18
• Global Chain of Command: A Japanese Multinational Manufacturer in the United States""""Case 19
• Safe Passage: An NGO in Guatemala City Responds to a Leadership Crisis""; ""Case 20
• The Case of Jim: A Vice President in a National Nonprofit Association""; ""case 21
• A Small World After All""; ""Case 22
• Accounting Team Problems at Acme Manufacturing""; ""Case 23
• Whoâ€?s Making the Decisions at Livingston University?""; ""Case 24
• Greencycle Publishing""; ""Case 25
• When a Team Breaks in Two""
• ""Case 26
• Diggins/Reinholdt Plastics, Inc.: A Study in Resistance to Change in the Aftermath of a Merger""""case 27
• Whole Organizational Design Intervention""; ""Case 28
• The Change Story of Yellow Auto Company""; ""case 29
• We Must Learn to Innovate!: Culture Change (and Shock) in a Consumer Packaged Goods Company""; ""Case 30
• Sticker Shock in an Organization That Wil lNot Stick Together""; ""Part III
• Exercises in Organization Development and Change""; ""Exercise 1
• Contracting With a Client""; ""Exercise 2
• Organization Development Practitioner Skills""
• ""Exercise 3
• Data Gathering""
• Leading through transitions : participant workbook one-day workshop / by: Bunker, Kerry A., et al. Published: (2018)
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Organizational change and development in India : A case of strategic organizational change and transformation

2010, Journal of Organizational Change Management

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Organization change is as old as organizations themselves. The pharaohs of ancient Egypt probably struggled with a need to change the organizations that built their pyramids. And imagine the degree of organization needed, with continual modifications, to successfully construct the Great Wall of China. Significant happenings across the world are having their impact on organizations in both developing as well as developed countries. Today, business leaders are facing the complex task of leading not only organizations but also their countries into the future. Currently, a trend is under way to change the organizations. A look at the Indian organizations also indicates that to keep pace with change. Organizations exist in a changing environment and cannot afford to have rigid hierarchies, high degrees of functional specialization, job description having limited scope or impersonal and autocratic management. For successful companies, managing change is the main focus of its effectiveness. Change is necessary to meet the current challenges, while few organizations succeed in this attempt, others may fail. The research study analyzed the perceptions of 650 executives in theselect Public Sector Enterprise (Visakhapatnam) on drivers of organizational change.

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Organizational Development and Change Case Study

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• Action Research and Organizational Development

Large Group Interventions

Job redesign, sales have gone down at the xyz widget corporation and nobody in the organization, including the ceo, seems to know why.

Missing action research/ organizational development step. There are several steps that XYZ Widget Corporation missed out on in their action research. However, the most crucial is the data feedback and confrontation step. McLean (2006) explains that in the data feedback and confrontation step of organizational development, the management and the consultant divide the working population into focus groups who are then given the collected data to discuss, review and provide feedback. The grouping of the employees, who will take part in the study, should be done with guidance from the management. It can be argued that the step verifies the data that was collected in the previous organizational development step. According to the case study provided, this did not happen. The importance of this first missed step is that it allows the removal of any bias from the expert/consultant. Secondly, the measure also encourages a feedback process, where the employees can solve any arising issues. In organizational development, it is common to find some disputes regarding the results of the action research done. It is the data feedback and confrontation step that identifies and resolves such conflicts.

Why missing steps led to failure. The identified missed step led to the failure of the intervention that was proposed by the consultant. The proposed intervention was the raising of salaries of all the sales agents in an attempt to make them more motivated to work and perform better. The identified missed step, data feedback and confrontation, added to the failure of the intervention as the consultant did not resolve some of the disputes in the data collection process. Some of the disputes that might have been noted include the other highly rated reasons for lack of motivation in the sales agents. The consultant only focused on low income, which might not have been the core issue at hand. The said step would have identified the other factors that were leading to poor performance, and allowed both the consultant and the management to design a more viable strategy and intervention.

HN Motors is a large manufacturer of both cars and motorcycles. However, neither the car department nor the motorcycle department wants to take the lead and the project keeps getting stalled

Missing action research/ organizational development step. The identified missed step is the intervening in the system step. It is crucial to point out that the said step was missed due to the influence of the management of the company. According to the case study provided, the management requested the consultant to stop the process after the writing of both the report and the recommendation. Whereas the management agreed with the suggested intervention strategy, they did not feel the need to continue interacting with the consultant. The missed step would have, however, allowed the expert to make the intervention strategy better, and to customize it according to the operations and functions of the different departments in HN Motors. The consultant would have also been able to train the employees on various aspects that would have helped with the implementation of the proposed intervention. For instance, one of the identified problems was the lack of communication between the motorcycle department and the car department. The issue was only identified after the consultant had done the action research. During the intervention in the system step, the expert would have pinpointed the importance of open and flexible communication channels, thereby, equipping the employees with communication skills for future use.

Why missing steps led to failure. The discussed missed step, the intervention of the system, led to the failure of the intervention through missed training. As mentioned, the training would have helped the employees and management embrace the different changes that the intervention would have created. One of the key issues identified through the case study, in the company, is poor communication. The motorcycle and car departments failed to communicate with each other and did not give their reasons for stalling the development of the high mileage vehicle.

Dr. Joseph Hotshot is a leading management consultant who charges huge fees for his Extra Special Action Research System

Missing action research/ organizational development step. The chosen missed step is the initial diagnosis of the problem. It can be argued that the company, Ace Carpet Cleaning, did not know why the employees were not motivated. From the provided case study, there is no mention of a partnership with the consultant. In fact, it can be argued that the consultant did not involve the management in the process, and only spoke with the employees. By doing so, the consultant did not get accurate information that affected the company as a whole. In the same breath, it can be argued that the consultant only focused on the personal issues each employee had. In turn, the consultant failed to come up with viable solutions for the company as a whole. The definition of an organization comes into play in this scenario. An organization can be defined as the sum of its parts, which have to work together for the benefit of the whole. The consultant appears to have perceived the organization as its individual parts.

Why missing steps led to failure. As stated, the identified step led to the failure of the intervention that was proposed by the consultant. The initial diagnosis of the problem, as said, did not involve the management, therefore, took an individual approach. The individual approach, whereas critical in identifying the personal issues, is not recommended for organizational development. The first problem that arises from the approach is that it separates the individual from other employees, and from the organization.

Kooltrendy wants the merger to go through as smoothly as possible with minimal conflicts between employees of the two companies, so they have hired an organizational development consultant to look at ways to help ease this transition for all employees

Missing action research/ organizational development step. The company did not have any form of data feedback and confrontation. The missed step, as stated, is important as it allows the consultant and the management to figure out whether the data that was collected goes hand in hand with what is on the ground. Lurey and Griffin (2013) explain that the data feedback and confrontation stage also allows for the consultant to make a viable intervention strategy. The consultant would also have been in a position to gather additional information on the problems that the employees face, and propose changes to be made to make the merger successful. It is also important to note that the step would have given feedback, which would have worked as a source of evaluation of the process so far.

Why missing steps led to failure. One of the reasons why the intervention failed was the skipping of the identified step. The consultant was not able to reconcile the data or resolve any dispute that the data might have had, thereby, was not able to solve the problem at hand. Indeed, even though the consultant was able to identify the biggest problem the organization faced, the intervention that was put in place did not attempt to solve all other issues that had been noted during the data collection process.

The XYZ Corporation has been growing rapidly for the past 10 years but recently has hit a plateau and is not growing much anymore

The CEO of the organization should use Future Search to encourage the heads of departments to make up their minds on the departments that need the proposed changes. There are several reasons why Future Search is best suited for the scenario given. The first reason is the number of people that are involved. Norum (2005) explains that Future Search is best suited for groups of 40 to 80 individuals. Based on the case study provided, the heads of department involved in the process are 50, which makes the number perfect for Future Search.

Secondly, Norum (2005) explains that Future Search allows the involved to use their personal experiences to elaborate on their reasons. The premise is important for the case study as each head of department will not want changes effected in their departments. Change is not wanted. Each head of department will be asked to give their personal experiences, and then the rest of the team will give opinions and reasons why the department needs change, or why it does not, allowing for easier decision making. The process is very inclusive, therefore, making it easier for the heads of departments to make the necessary decisions without being biased.

Thirdly, it can be argued that Future Search is best suited for the scenario as it leads to four primary outcomes, shared values, viable goals, a way forward and a strategy to be used (Nixon, 1998). The stated outcomes are desirable as they provide a plan on implementation of the changes that are about to be experienced in the departments that will be chosen.

The new CEO of a large and successful Internet company has just been hired. This CEO is highly experienced, but being new to this company he really wants to get everyone’s opinion about a large range of issues

The new CEO should use Open Space Technology. Nixon (1998) explains that Open Space Technology revolves around purpose-driven leadership. The approach has been chosen due to several reasons. The first reason is that it allows the employees to be properly introduced to the new CEO. Being new, the CEO has to be careful not to disrupt systems that he is yet to understand. Open Space Technology gives the CEO the opportunity to learn more about the employees, and the systems in place. At the same time, Open Space Technology creates a platform for change management.

Secondly, Open Space Technology has been suggested as the best option as it allows for large numbers of participants. According to the case study, the company has 500 employees. Thus, it would not be appropriate to use Future Search, as it can only apply to 80 people at the maximum, and 40 people at the minimum. Rogers (2010) confirms that Open Space Technology can accommodate a maximum of 500 people, making it perfect for the approach selected.

Thirdly, Open Space Technology has been suggested as it allows for meetings to be held without an initial agenda. It is clear that the CEO wants to hear the opinions of the employees. However, there is no specific agenda and the CEO did not state the desired outcomes of the meeting. The CEO will be in a better place to encourage the employees to talk about everything they deem important. In so doing, the CEO will gather as much information as possible to develop viable strategies for the organization.

An accounting company has three main divisions: tax, auditing, and accounting information systems. The CEO would like employee input on what major strategic initiatives to take and would like input from a wide range of employees and managers

The CEO should use Open Space Technology to get the opinion of the employees. One of the reasons why Open Space Technology is best suited for the scenario is that the company has a lot of employees. The 300 employees, plus the 40 senior managers can send in their opinions without necessarily speaking in front of the rest. Due to the large numbers, it is impossible to get all the staff to speak their minds. Nixon (1998) confirms that Open Space Technology allows for the quiet employees to give their opinions, through a representative. The approach chosen will also ensure that no employee feels victimized. The company will be victimizing employees if they force them to speak against their will.

It is also important to note that the meeting does not have a particular agenda. Whereas the CEO wants to get different opinions on the strategic initiatives to take, he also intends to create an environment where all employees feel they can give their views on various factors and strategies that management employs. Suffices to state, getting opinions on the strategic initiatives to take, is not an agenda, but a theme. Rogers (2010) clarifies that Open Space Technology allows for such a general theme, without any formal plan.

It will be challenging, however, to make the employees speak their minds, especially in the presence of the senior managers. However, as stated, the employees can pick representatives who can speak on their behalf. It is also important to mention that Open Space Technology will allow the senior managers to interact with the other employees, thereby, creating a platform of inclusivity.

A CEO initiates an Open Space Technology conference. At the start of the conference, the CEO provides a list of topics he wants covered and also gives his opinion on what kind of outcomes he wants from the conference. He also makes attendance at the conference mandatory

First, the CEO did not fully understand the concept of Open Space Technology. According to Leith (1996), Open Space Technology should have an agenda. By giving the meeting the agendas of the day and the desired outcomes of the conference, the CEO violated the guidelines of Open Space Technology. Leith (1996) explains that there are several guiding principles of Open Space Technology. The first principle violated by the CEO in the case study given is that the people who make it to the meeting are all the people who are needed to make a change (Rogers, 2010). The principle suggests that the attending of the meeting does not need the CEO or senior managers, and at the same time, suggests that the meeting is not mandatory. The CEO made it clear to the employees that the meeting was mandatory, therefore, violating the said principle.

The CEO also violated the fourth principle that encourages surprise (Leith, 1996). There was no form of surprise, for both the CEO and the employees, as the CEO had already stated the desired outcomes. It can be argued that the participants wrote the report, and gave recommendations based on what they thought the CEO wanted to hear, and not on what mattered. Therefore, the exercise was a complete waste of time. In the same breath, the CEO violated the said principle by also giving the agenda of the conference. As stated, the CEO would have given a general theme of the conference and prepared to be surprised by the outcome and the agenda that would have been created during the conference.

The ABC Corporation has a team of telemarketers. While the telemarketing team is performing well, the company is concerned about high turnover among telemarketers and wants to do some job enrichment

It can be argued that out of the five core job dimensions, the management should revise the ‘Autonomy’ element during the job re-design to allow for less turnover. The case study states that the employees are free to work within their timelines as long as they deliver desired outcomes at the end of every month. It can be argued that the employees of the organization have too much freedom. Griffin (2007) explains that autonomy is the degree to which an individual has the freedom, discretion, and independence to schedule their work. Whereas autonomy is good and has been embraced by the newer generations, it has to have a limit. Since ABC Corporation does not have a cap on the freedom the telemarketers have, they do not feel valued in the company, thus, willingly change jobs frequently. It can also be argued that the freedom accorded the telemarketers is too much such that they feel highly skilled and look for more challenging jobs.

The other four core job dimensions can be left as they are, as they have no direct impact on the turnover. The four stated dimensions are skills, task identity, task significance and feedback (Griffin, 2007). It is important to stress that the intense feedback that the company encourages is essential for the success of the enterprise, and for understanding the high employee turnover. The company can modify the feedback tool to also include job satisfaction as a way of determining the reasons for high employee turnover. It is crucial to point out that the company should not reduce the frequent feedback reports that are shared with the employees as it also allows the employees to grow and perform better.

At the Grand Valley Medical Clinic there are four high-ranking employees. They have all been working at the clinic for a long time and have strong performance records, but management is worried they are becoming bored and dissatisfied with their jobs and there is concern they might all leave unless their jobs change

Management should take up a job redesign approach. Hartzell (2015) explains that job redesign involves expanding a job position to allow for more challenging activities, on top of the day to day events that surround the job. According to the case study, the specialists are bored of doing the same job day in and day out. To motivate them, and make them more interested in their jobs, management has to expand their mandate to give them more challenging options. Hartzell (2015) explains that there are three things that can be done in regard to job redesign. The three options are job enrichment, job enlargement, and job rotation. Out of the three, the management can use job enrichment to motivate the identified specialists.

Hartzell (2015) argues that job enrichment allows the specialists to use the skills they already have, in other capacities. It is crucial to appreciate the skills the said experts have, as they have taken years to develop them. Therefore, expanding their jobs to also include other areas where such skills are needed will be beneficial both to the health care professionals and to the health facility.

For example, for Dr. Roberts, the pediatrician, the management can also add maternal services in his routine. Therefore, the doctor will also attend to pregnant mothers, and not just the children. The doctor can attend to the pregnant women due to the skills and knowledge acquired as a pediatrician. In the same note, the nurse, who does patient check-ups, can be tasked with administrative responsibilities as she is used to dealing with patients, the family of the patients, and the other health care professionals in the facility. The eye specialist can be added in the ENT department to also take care of patients with throat and nose problems as they are all related through the ENT body structure.

Transwest Airlines has decided to hire you as a job crafting consultant for two groups of their employees. Before arriving at the airline to do interviews and make recommendations, you first need to do some reading on what general approach you will use

According to Wrzesniewski (2015), there are three ways in which job crafting can be achieved. The three ways are task crafting, relational crafting, and cognitive crafting. According to the case study provided, there are two groups of employees to think about when designing the job crafting strategy. The two groups are the pilots, who have one main job description, and the marketers, who have several items in their job description. It is arguable that the two groups will need different approaches to job crafting.

As mentioned, the pilots have one main job description, which is to fly the plane. Therefore, they are best suited to use cognitive crafting to enjoy their tasks more. Whereas the job remains the same, the pilots, on an individual basis, will have the power to creatively “perceive” their tasks as different. For example, the pilots can see their jobs as a way of communicating and interacting with people from other cultures. They can sharpen their people skills by also acting as tour guides and pointing out the different landmarks that passengers can see during their flight. There are two advantages of this approach for the pilots. First, it goes hand in hand with their job description. They are still pilots, and they use the knowledge they already have (of the different routes) to their advantage. Secondly, the pilots get to learn more about customer service. Because they rarely meet with the passengers, pilots tend to lack skills in dealing with people. On the other hand, the marketers will benefit greatly by adopting task crafting. Due to the numerous items in their job description, it only makes sense for the marketers to drop some of their tasks and make their workload lighter. In turn, they will have time to do other things they are interested in, and motivate themselves further.

Similarities and differences between job redesigning and job crafting. One of the similarities between job redesigning and job crafting is that they both aim at motivating the employee in question. They are both used to change routine and make day to day activities more engaging for employees. On the same breath, a difference between the two is that job crafting is more permanent than job redesigning (Hartzell, 2015). For instance, if the marketers in Scenario 3 drop some of the items in their job description, they cannot add them back later. However, in job redesigning, the involved have the option to go back to their routine if they so wish, without causing a lot of changes.

Advantages and disadvantages of job redesign and job crafting. One advantage of both job redesigning and job crafting is that they motivate the employees. They offer new and challenging activities for the involved (Wrzesniewski, 2015). On the other hand, one of the disadvantages of both job crafting and job redesigning is that they can affect the organizational processes and systems. Therefore, after every job redesign and crafting, the whole organization has to be trained on the changes that would have been initiated.

Hartzell, S. (2015). Types of job redesign: Job enrichment, enlargement & rotation [Video File]. Web.

Lurey, J., & Griffin, M. (2013). Action research: The anchor of OD practice. In Vogelsang, J. (ed). Handbook for Strategic HR: Best Practices in Organization Development from the OD Network (pp. 46 – 52). Saranac Lake, NY: AMACOM Books.

Leith, M. (1996). Organizational change and large group interventions. Career Development International, 1 (4), 19-23.

McLean, G. N. (2006). Organization development: Principles, processes, performance. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.

Nixon, B. (1998). Creating the futures we desire – getting the whole system into the room: Part I. Industrial and Commercial Training, 30 (1), 4-11.

Norum, K. E. (2005). Future Search conversation. In Dialogue as a Means of Collective Communication (pp.323 – 333) . New York, NY: Springer Science & Business Media B.V.

Rogers, J. (2010). Large group interventions: Facilitating groups. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill Education.

Wrzesniewski, A. (2015). Job crafting – Amy Wrzesniewski on creating meaning in your own work [Video File]. Web.

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• Published: 04 July 2024

Employees’ pro-environmental behavior in an organization: a case study in the UAE

• Nadin Alherimi 1 ,
• Zeki Marva 1 ,
• Khalid Hamarsheh 1 &
• Ayman Alzaaterh 2  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  15371 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

• Environmental economics
• Environmental impact

This study investigates the factors influencing employees’ pro-environmental behavior (PEB) within organizations in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), a nation with a strong policy focus on sustainability. Utilizing a questionnaire-based survey of 146 employees in an automotive division of a UAE company and structural equation modeling (SEM), the research examines the impact of green entrepreneurial orientation, green leadership, environmental commitment, and Green Human Resource Management (GHRM) on employees’ willingness to engage in eco-friendly practices at work. The findings reveal that GHRM and green leadership significantly influence employees’ green entrepreneurial orientation, which in turn, alongside environmental commitment, positively impacts PEB. These results emphasize the importance of integrating sustainability into organizational culture, leadership, and human resource practices to foster a workforce that actively participates in environmental initiatives, thereby contributing to the development of sustainable communities and enhancing stakeholder engagement. The study provides valuable insights into the specific factors that drive PEB in the UAE context, where national policies prioritize sustainability, highlighting that the importance of implementing green practices and promoting a supportive environment encourages employees and stakeholders to embrace environmental sustainability. The research also sheds light on the role of green entrepreneurial orientation, suggesting that empowering employees to develop innovative environmental solutions can be a key driver of PEB. The SEM analysis also confirmed the positive impact of GHRM and green leadership on green entrepreneurial orientation. Additionally, green entrepreneurial orientation and environmental commitment were found to significantly influence PEB. These results have practical implications for organizations in the UAE and beyond, emphasizing that by integrating eco-friendly practices and fostering stakeholder engagement, organizations can enhance their environmental performance, strengthen their reputation, and attract environmentally conscious customers and employees, contributing to the development of sustainable communities.

Introduction

The increasing concern surrounding environmental issues has facilitated a paradigm shift in the business landscape, with sustainability becoming a major concern 1 , 2 , 3 . Environmental challenges, including climate change, ozone depletion, deforestation, ecosystem degradation, and biodiversity loss, have garnered widespread attention from the public and policymakers alike. In response to this heightened awareness, the imperative for businesses to adopt a more responsible approach towards environmental protection has become increasingly evident 4 . Organizations are now expected to integrate environmental considerations into their core business strategies, encompassing resource management, waste reduction, and the minimization of negative ecological impacts. This shift towards sustainability not only aligns with ethical imperatives but also serves as a strategic advantage, ensuring long-term viability and mitigating potential future risks 4 .

Within this context, employees' pro-environmental behavior (PEB) has emerged as a critical factor in achieving corporate sustainability goals 5 . PEB refers to the deliberate actions taken by employees to minimize their negative impact on the environment, both within and outside the workplace. These behaviors can range from simple actions like recycling and conserving energy to more complex initiatives like advocating for sustainable practices within the organization. Research has shown that employee’s PEB is not only beneficial for the environment but also positively impacts organizational performance, including financial outcomes, employee morale, and corporate reputation.

The existing body of literature indicates the importance of employees' pro-environmental behavior (PEB) in the workplace for enhancing an organization's environmental performance 5 . Despite previous research, various issues have not yet been thoroughly examined and properly understood. In this context, one of the studies proposes that an intriguing area of investigation is concerned with the impact of Green Human Resource Management (GHRM) on enhancing the pro-environmental performance of employees 6 . To promote the environmental performance of employees, companies must take into account the PEB of employees in conjunction with their GHRM practices. Organizations have succeeded in improving the PEB of employees by implementing GHRM practices 6 . Similarly, another work has concluded from the research in the hospitality sector that green HR practices assist employees in enhancing their eco-friendly behaviors 7 . Besides, a recent study reveals a positive relationship between GHRM practices and pro-environmental behavior in the Nigerian hospitality sector 8 . The results highlight the importance of green human capital as a mediating factor, suggesting that fostering employees' green skills and knowledge is key to promoting sustainable practices. Moreover, a study highlighted that by integrating GHRM practices that prioritize sustainability, manufacturing companies can effectively promote green behavior in the workplace, leading to improved environmental performance and contributing to a cleaner and more sustainable environment 9 . However, a study conducted in the industrial sector found that while GHRM predicts the PEB of employees, another crucial factor, namely employees’ “green self-efficacy,” still requires exploration 10 . As GHRM enhances employees’ skills and behavior, it can lead to the development of improved green entrepreneurship among employees. Furthermore, green entrepreneurship can serve as a predictor of employees’ PEB. This particular mechanism, which combines GHRM with green entrepreneurship, warrants further investigation, as it has the potential to bring about the most significant changes and improvements.

Another important factor influencing PEB is green leadership. Green leaders are those who prioritize environmental sustainability in their decision-making and actions 11 . They serve as role models for employees, demonstrating a commitment to environmental protection and inspiring others to follow suit. Green leadership can manifest in various ways, such as setting ambitious environmental goals, advocating for sustainable practices, and creating a supportive environment for employees to engage in PEB.

Environmental commitment, which refers to an individual's sense of responsibility and dedication to protecting the environment, is also a significant predictor of PEB 12 . Employees who are deeply committed to environmental causes are more likely to engage in PEBs, both at work and in their personal lives. This commitment can be fostered through various means, such as environmental education and awareness programs, opportunities for employees to participate in environmental initiatives, and recognition of their contributions to sustainability.

Furthermore, the literature on sustainable entrepreneurship within established firms, particularly those with significant environmental footprints, is limited 13 . Identifying the critical factors that enable pro-environmental and resilient entrepreneurship in these contexts is crucial for promoting green innovation and overcoming the challenges associated with implementing sustainable practices. Understanding the role of environmental commitment, a key factor in fostering PEB, is particularly relevant in this context.

Research has also established a link between corporate social responsibility (CSR), environmental commitment, and PEB, suggesting that employees' perceptions of their organization's commitment to sustainability influence their own pro-environmental actions 14 . This finding is consistent with social exchange theory 15 , which posits that employees reciprocate favorable organizational policies and practices with positive behaviors 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 . However, the specific mechanisms through which perceived CSR translates into PEB and the role of organizational culture in this process require further investigation.

To address these gaps in the literature, this study aims to develop and validate a comprehensive theoretical framework that examines the impact of green leadership, GHRM practices, green entrepreneurship, and environmental commitment on PEB. By investigating these factors in an integrated manner, this research seeks to contribute to a more holistic understanding of the determinants of PEB globally. The study will focus on a service-oriented organization in the UAE, a context where national policies actively prioritize sustainability, making it a particularly relevant setting for investigating PEB. The findings of this research will not only advance theoretical knowledge but also offer practical insights for organizations seeking to promote PEB and achieve their sustainability goals.

This study is motivated by the need to understand the complex interplay of factors that influence employees’ pro-environmental behavior in the unique context of the UAE, where sustainability is a national priority. The research aims to fill the gap in the literature by providing a comprehensive model of PEB that integrates green leadership, GHRM practices, green entrepreneurship, and environmental commitment. The target of this study is to offer practical recommendations for organizations in the UAE and beyond on how to effectively promote PEB among their employees, thereby contributing to a more sustainable future.

The remainder of this paper is structured as follows: section “ Literature review ” provides a comprehensive overview of the relevant literature and theoretical foundations, outlining the specific hypotheses to be tested. Section “ Methodology ” details the research methodology employed, including data collection and analysis procedures. Section “ Discussion ” presents a thorough discussion of the results, interpreting the theoretical and practical implications gained in this research. Finally, section “ Summary, conclusion, and recommendations ” concludes the study by summarizing the key findings, drawing conclusions, and offering recommendations for future research directions in this important and evolving field.

Literature review

Environmental conservation and sustainability have emerged as prominent organizational goals in recent years, with companies actively seeking to align their operations with eco-friendly practices. Achieving environmental sustainability is contingent upon employees consistently engaging in pro-environmental behaviors (PEBs). These behaviors encompass a range of quantifiable actions that contribute to a greener workplace 21 , as well as employees' intentions to participate in sustainable activities 22 . Notably, PEBs are often considered voluntary, extra-role behaviors that employees undertake to benefit their organizations 23 . These behaviors can manifest in various ways, from resource conservation efforts like turning off lights and using double-sided printing, to waste management practices aimed at protecting the environment. As environmental concerns gain prominence, businesses are increasingly investing in employee programs to enhance environmental efficiency 24 . However, the success of such programs ultimately depends on the extent to which employees engage in PEBs 25 . The literature highlights the crucial link between PEB and organizational success, both financially and non-financially 21 . This research aims to delve deeper into this connection by examining the impact of various factors on PEB, including green entrepreneurship, green leadership, environmental commitment, and GHRM practices. By understanding these factors, organizations can gain valuable insights for fostering a culture of sustainability and maximizing the benefits of employee PEBs.

• Green Entrepreneurial Orientation

The literature suggests a link between employee pro-environmental behavior (PEB) and innovation within organizations. Environmental issues often require complex solutions, leading to a focus on environmental innovations and the factors influencing entrepreneurial intentions 26 , 27 . Green entrepreneurship, where employees engage in entrepreneurial activities that promote environmental sustainability, plays a crucial role in shaping their attitudes and behaviors, ultimately enhancing their pro-environmental conduct 28 .

The literature suggests a multifaceted relationship of green entrepreneurship, creativity, innovation, and PEB in employees. Green entrepreneurship, focused on identifying and addressing environmental issues through available opportunities, has been found to positively influence PEB 29 . This is likely due to the increased environmental awareness and problem-solving skills that employees develop through active engagement in green initiatives. Additionally, employee creativity and innovation have been identified as critical factors in the greening of organizations 23 . Employees who can generate novel ideas and effectively implement them to solve environmental problems contribute significantly to the development of sustainable practices. This suggests that creativity and innovation are not only valuable for organizational performance but also essential drivers of PEB. The empowering nature of green entrepreneurship further supports this connection. When employees with a green mindset are empowered to act on their ideas, they are more likely to initiate environmental projects and develop new ecological approaches, ultimately fostering PEB within the workplace 25 .

The literature highlights the significant influence of employee innovation capabilities on pro-environmental behavior (PEB). Studies indicate that employees leverage their knowledge to understand environmental concerns and develop solutions, such as pollution control programs and carbon emission reduction measures 30 , 31 . This impact extends beyond specific industries, as sectors like banking and universities can also benefit from employee knowledge sharing and empowerment to address environmental challenges. Furthermore, research emphasizes that PEB is not solely determined by traditional predictors but is also shaped by employee creativity, innovativeness, and tacit skills 25 , 32 . These factors enable employees to generate and implement novel ideas for environmental sustainability, contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of PEB. Additionally, green leadership skills have emerged as a critical factor influencing PEB in organizations. While the specific mechanisms through which green leadership affects PEB require further investigation, its importance in shaping organizational culture and promoting pro-environmental practices is evident.

• Green Leadership

The literature emphasizes the crucial role of leadership in shaping organizational behavior and outcomes. Leadership, defined as the ability to influence others towards achieving goals 33 , is often associated with individual traits like intellect and dominance 34 . Organizations that foster leadership development by recognizing and nurturing future leaders create environments conducive to employee initiative and innovation 35 . This is particularly relevant in the context of environmental sustainability, where supportive work environments and cultures have been shown to motivate employees to implement pro-environmental practices, such as recycling programs and continuous improvement initiatives 36 . Environmental leaders, who prioritize environmental considerations in decision-making and organizational processes, play a key role in promoting pro-environmental behavior (PEB) within organizations. While environmental leadership does not strictly adhere to any single theory, it often exhibits characteristics of transformational leadership, inspiring and motivating employees to embrace pro-environmental values and actions 37 .

The literature highlights a complex interplay between leadership, environmental leadership, and pro-environmental behavior (PEB) in organizations. Transformational leadership, sharing traits with environmental leadership, is often applied to environmental contexts due to its focus on both internal and external relationships and its influence on individual and organizational levels 38 , 39 . This is evident in behaviors such as creating a compelling environmental vision, raising awareness of environmental issues, and demonstrating personal commitment to environmental concerns. Environmental leaders, both at the individual and organizational levels, play a crucial role in promoting sustainable practices within organizations 40 , 41 . Individual leadership can emerge from any member, while organizational leadership involves implementing eco-friendly policies and cultivating a sustainable culture. Top management support and commitment are essential for the successful implementation of such practices. Leadership influences human resource management practices and contributes to environmental performance 42 . Different leadership styles, such as vision development, problem-solving, innovation, trust-building, conflict management, and resource utilization, can be employed to guide individuals toward achieving environmental goals 34 , 43 . Moreover, leadership outcomes, like fostering pro-environmental initiatives and encouraging employee engagement in environmental entrepreneurship, are linked to increased PEB 42 .

Environmental Commitment

Individuals who establish a psychological connection with nature are more likely to demonstrate environmental commitment 44 . This phenomenon can be explained through interdependence theory and the commitment model. Interdependence theory highlights the factors influencing commitment between individuals, while the commitment model focuses on the development of commitment itself. Both theories suggest that individuals tend to exhibit commitment towards entities they rely on to fulfill their needs and desires. Thus, a strong psychological connection to nature, representing a form of reliance for emotional well-being and belonging, could foster environmental commitment. This commitment, in turn, is expected to translate into increased PEB as individuals act in accordance with their environmental values and sense of responsibility 45 .

The literature suggests a complex relationship between biospheric values, environmental commitment, and pro-environmental behavior (PEB). Biospheric value orientation, reflecting an individual's concern for the environment, has been found to predict environmental intentions, behaviors, and preferences 46 . Environmental commitment, the degree to which an individual is dedicated to environmental protection, is positively correlated with biospheric values 47 , indicating that individuals with strong environmental values are more likely to exhibit high levels of commitment. This commitment, in turn, has been shown to influence an individual’s willingness to act and make sacrifices for the environment 44 , 46 , 48 . Individuals with high environmental commitment are more likely to engage in pro-environmental behaviors and make choices that benefit the environment, such as consuming green products and adopting sustainable practices.

Based on the literature, a multifaceted relationship between environmental commitment, pro-environmental behavior (PEB), and several influencing factors. A study proposes that an individual's mental model of the environment can significantly impact their level of environmental commitment and subsequent PEB 49 . This implies that the way individuals perceive and conceptualize the environment influences their willingness to engage in pro-environmental actions. Furthermore, other factors like an individual's psychological connection to nature, adherence to interdependence and commitment theories, reliance on the environment, and biospheric values have been shown to predict environmental commitment and PEB 44 , 41 , 47 . A strong psychological connection to nature, for instance, can foster a sense of responsibility and belonging, increasing environmental commitment and promoting PEB.

• Green Human Resource Management

GHRM has emerged as a pivotal concept in the realm of sustainable business practices, encompassing human resource activities that explicitly address a firm’s environmental and ecological impact 50 . GHRM is intrinsically linked to an organization’s environmental policy and the ecological behaviors of its employees, highlighting the importance of aligning human capital with environmental objectives 51 . The significance of GHRM in the literature on sustainable human resource management lies in its comprehensive approach, which emphasizes the integration of environmental management practices into core business operations 6 . By acting as a pathway between human resource management and environmental management, GHRM reflects an organization’s strategic commitment to sustainability. This commitment necessitates top management’s active involvement in designing and implementing organizational processes and strategies that encourage employees to participate in environmentally conscious activities aimed at reducing emissions 52 . In essence, GHRM operationalizes an organization’s environmental management objectives through its human resource systems 53 . This includes incorporating environmental considerations into various HR functions such as performance management, incentives, training and development, recruitment and selection, and fostering a green entrepreneurship orientation among employees. Notably, research suggests that GHRM can enhance employees’ skills and behaviors, leading to the development of improved green entrepreneurship among employees 11 . Furthermore, green entrepreneurship can serve as a predictor of employees' PEB. This mechanism, which combines GHRM with green entrepreneurship, warrants further investigation as a potential catalyst for significant changes and improvements in PEB.

These hypotheses are grounded in the understanding that GHRM practices not only equip employees with the necessary knowledge and skills for environmentally responsible actions but also cultivate a sense of environmental awareness and commitment, ultimately leading to increased PEB both within and outside the workplace. Additionally, the mediating role of green entrepreneurship highlights the potential for GHRM to empower employees to become agents of change, further amplifying its positive impact on PEB.

By testing these hypotheses, this study aims to shed light on the complex relationship between green leadership, GHRM practices, green entrepreneurship, environmental commitment and PEB, providing valuable insights for organizations striving to achieve both environmental and economic sustainability. Based on the findings of the literature, the green aspects that are assumed to impact on PEB of employees are summarized in Table 1 along with the indicators of each green aspect. Additionally, Tables 2 and 3 illustrate a summary of the studies found in literature regarding the green aspects that influence the PEB of employees in organizations.

Methodology

This research adopted a multi-prolonged methodological approach which is initiated by identifying the problem, which is measuring the employees’ pro-environmental behavior (PEB) in a case organization in the UAE. Then, a comprehensive literature review to identify the green aspects related to PEB in existing research. Informed by the literature search, a questionnaire was developed and distributed to employees in a service-oriented organization in the UAE. The collected data underwent rigorous validation procedures to ensure the reliability and validity of the survey instrument. Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) test measures the sampling adequacy of each variable in the model 54 , 55 . Cronbach’s alpha (α), measures of internal consistency, was employed due to its simplicity, interpretability, and widespread acceptance across various fields 56 . Its suitability for Likert-scale questionnaires further justified its selection over alternative measures. Additionally, convergent validity was established through composite reliability (CR) and average variance extracted (AVE) analyses, both specifically tailored for use in structural equation modeling (SEM) 57 , 58 . CR assessed the internal consistency of items measuring the same construct, while AVE determined the amount of variance in the construct explained by the items compared to measurement error.

After data validation, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was employed to identify and confirm the latent constructs underlying the green aspect influencing the PEB of employees in a case organization in the UAE, simultaneously testing the validity of the proposed measurement model 59 . CFA was chosen for its ability for model fit assessment and theory testing, which best suits this study as compared to item response theory and exploratory factor analysis. This is followed by content validity investigating standard estimates, to ensure the chosen indicators accurately represent the underlying constructs. Subsequently, structural equation modeling (SEM), by integrating factor analysis and path analysis, provided a robust framework for evaluating both the measurement model and the hypothesized structural relationships 60 . SEM was utilized to examine the impact of independent factors (Green Entrepreneurial orientation, Green Leadership, Environmental Commitment, and GHRM) on the dependent factor (PEB) followed by goodness-of-fit validation and measuring the impact of employees’ years of experience and qualification on PEB using univariate statistical analysis. Finally, the results and discussion, summary, conclusion, and recommendations were drawn (see Fig.  1 ).

Research methodology.

As such, the research methodology was conducted in the following steps to ensure a systematic and reliable investigation.

Step 1: Problem identification—The main focus of the study is to shed light on measuring the PEB in a service-oriented organization in the UAE by designing a survey to collect responses and reviews from employees who participated in this research to evaluate the main effective factors that enhance and boost environmental awareness of the employees.

Step 2: Literature search—The literature review aided the study in developing an understanding of the most popular green aspects that impact on the successful PEB of employees in an organizational setting in the UAE.

Step 3: Questionnaire and data collection—An online questionnaire was conducted with employees and experts in an automotive division in the UAE to evaluate the factors identified in Table 1 , as well as gain an in-depth understanding of their perceptions of the most essential factors affecting PEB in the UAE. The study followed snowball sampling approach 61 , which helps conduct research about people with specific traits to guide the study results, which include the opinions of employees and experts from an automotive division in the UAE.

Step 4: Data validation and reliability—The validity and reliability are crucial for any research conducting a questionnaire, if a questionnaire is not valid or reliable, the results will be flawed and cannot be used to make informed decisions or draw accurate conclusions. Therefore, researchers conducted sampling adequacy test through Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) test to ensure the sample size is adequate. This is followed by the reliability measure through Cronbach’s α which measures how closely a set of indicators are related as a group (the relevant green aspect). Then, the convergent validity was measure through composite reliability (CR) which is a more consistent measure as compared to Cronbach’s alpha in measuring the internal consistency of the indicators on the green aspects, as well as the average variance extracted (AVE) which measures the amount of variance captured by the green aspects (independent factors) in relation to the amount of variance due to measurement error. This assists practitioners to ensure that the questionnaire is a trustworthy and accurate tool for measuring the construct it is intended to measure.

Step 5: Data analysis—This step involves a comprehensive assessment of the relationships between green aspects and PEB through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) which was initially employed to verify a theoretical model of how specific indicators relate to broader green aspects, including Green Entrepreneurial orientation, Green Leadership, Environmental Commitment, and GHRM. The model's content validity was then examined by investigating standard estimates, ensuring the chosen indicators accurately represent the underlying constructs. Goodness-of-fit validation within the CFA statistically assessed how well the entire model aligns with observed data. Following this, structural equation modeling (SEM) was utilized to analyze causal relationships between independent factors (i.e., Green Entrepreneurial orientation, Green Leadership, Environmental Commitment, and GHRM) and the dependent factor, PEB. This step reveals the strength and significance of these relationships, providing insights into which green aspects most significantly impact PEB. Finally, another round of goodness-of-fit validation within the SEM context ensured the statistical soundness of the proposed relationships between green aspects and PEB. This rigorous approach not only validates the measurement model of green aspects but also tests their causal effects on PEB, offering both theoretical and practical implications for organizations aiming to foster a sustainable and attractive workplace. This is followed by univariate statistical analysis related to employees’ years of experience and qualification on PEB.

Step 6: Discussion—This section helped synthesizing the findings of the study in relation the impact of green aspects on PEB of employees in a service-oriented organization in the UAE, connecting them to existing knowledge, exploring their significance, and discussing the theoretical and practical implications of the study.

Step 7: Summary, conclusion, and recommendations—This section summarizes the key findings, draw conclusions based on the comprehensive methodology, and provides recommendations for further studies.

Questionnaire design and data collection

According to the literature review in section “ Literature review ”, several studies discussed the employees’ PEB through several green aspects as shown in Tables 2 and 3 . The green aspects include the green entrepreneurial orientation, green leadership, environmental commitment, and GHRM where each green aspect was assessed through three indicators. Each indicator was characterized by one question in the questionnaire by utilizing the five-point Likert scale for the green aspects were clearly explained to the employees and how they impact PEB. The sampling strategy followed a snowball sampling approach which helps conduct research about people with specific traits to guide the study results 62 . The questionnaire was distributed through google forms to all employees from different departments, professions, and experience levels in an automotive division of a group of companies as part of COP28 initiatives hosted by the UAE government. Thus, the company can evaluate, plan, and budget the required resources accordingly. As a result, 146 employees responded to the questionnaire.

Respondents’ demographic information

The respondents’ (employees’) demographic information is shown in Table 4 below. It is shown that 146 employees participated in the questionnaire, of which, the male respondents accounted for 86.3% of the total employees as compared to the female employees with 13.7% of the total. Moreover, most of the respondents’ ages (46.58%) were between 25 and 30 years, which indicates that most of the respondents considered for measuring employees’ PEB are adult and mature employees. According to the employees’ qualification, most of the respondents completed their undergraduate degree with a 67.81% of the total, this implies a higher level of maturity in terms of PEB as the universities in the UAE continuously urge students to engage in green and environmentally friendly practices. Moreover, the years of experience of most of the employees’ range between 1 to 7 (30.14%), 8 to 15 (32.19%), 16 to 23 (30.82%), and 24 and above (6.85%); this shows that most of the respondents were those with 8–15 years of experience in their profession and will be aware of the suitable environmental behaviors to be considered in their field of expertise. For the employment level, most of the respondents were from the intermediate level (45.89%) who are mostly supervisors and can promote other employees to adopt PEB at work.

Data analysis

This section analyzes the questionnaire data through the following steps: (1) data validation and reliability measures; (2) confirmatory factor analysis; (3) structural equation modeling; (4) univariate statistical analysis. A detailed data analysis is discussed below.

Data validation and reliability

This step is a crucial initial step to be assessed prior to CFA and SEM analysis, as it tests the collected data’s validity and reliability. Table 5 summarized the validity and reliability measures which consist of the standardized correlation coefficient with the total observed indicators within the same green aspect, KMO test, Cronbach’s α, and CR, and AVE. Furthermore, the sample size adequacy for SEM was assessed using the KMO test. A KMO value within the range of 0.7–1 signifies sufficient sample size 62 . In this study, the KMO value was 0.839, confirming the adequacy of the sample for SEM analysis. Moreover, Cronbach’s α is a measure of the internal consistency, which measures how closely related a set of indicators are as a group (the relevant green aspect) 56 . A Cronbach’s α value of 0.7 or higher is considered acceptable 63 , and according to Table 5 , the Cronbach’s α values for all green aspects are between 0.83 and 0.91, which is acceptable. Similarly, the CR measures the internal consistency of the indicators on the green aspects, however, it is more consistent than Cronbach’s α 57 . A CR value of 0.7 or above is considered acceptable 64 , and according to Table 5 , the CR values are between 0.84 and 0.91 which is acceptable. Furthermore, the AVE measures the amount of variance captured by the green aspects (independent factors) in relation to the amount of variance due to measurement error 58 . An AVE value of 0.5 or above is considered acceptable 65 , and according to Table 5 , the AVE values are between 0.64 and 0.77 which is acceptable. Consequently, the questionnaire results are valid and reliable.

Confirmatory factor analysis

This subsection analyzes the CFA results (Table 5 ), conducts content validity and tests the CFA model’s goodness of fit for validation. The CFA’s standardized parameter estimates (loadings) are considered as a measure or the content validity which should have a value of 0.7 or higher, and according to Table 5 , the estimates are between 0.72 and 0.89 which suggests that all the indicators are significant, and the content validity is confirmed in related to the green aspects. For validation purposes, the p-value for each indicator is calculated in Table 5 , which shows that all indicators have a p-value < 0.05 which confirms that all indicators are significant to the green aspects.

The goodness-of-fit tests for the CFA model include: standardized root mean square error (SRMSR) which measures the mean absolute value of the covariance residuals, which should be 0.05 or less, goodness of fit index (GFI) which measures the fit between the hypothesized model and the observed covariance matrix and should be 0.9 or above, the adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI) corrects the GFI, which is affected by the number of indicators of each latent variable which should be 0.9 or above, and Bentler comparative fit index (CFI) takes into account the sample size and avoids the underestimation of the fit which should be 0.9 or above. Table 6 shows that SRMSR = 0.0578 which is acceptable, GFI = 0.9209, AGFI = 0.8715, and CFI = 0.9725. Hence, the goodness of fit values reveals an acceptable fit. These findings demonstrate both the strength of the individual indicators and the overall validity of the CFA model, paving the way for a more in-depth analysis using SEM.

Structural equation modeling (SEM)

In this subsection, and according to the literature review, it was assumed that “GHRM” and “green leadership” have a positive impact on “green entrepreneurial orientation” of employees, and “green entrepreneurial orientation” and “environmental commitment” have a positive impact on PEB of employees as shown in SEM model in Fig.  2 . The model aims to measure and test the PEB of 146 employees in an automotive division of a group of companies as part of COP28 initiatives hosted by the UAE government. According to Fig.  2 , the following hypotheses are assumed:

SEM model for PEB.

H1 : Green human resources management has a positive impact on green entrepreneurial orientation of employees in an organization.

H2 : Green leadership has a positive impact on green entrepreneurial orientation of employees in an organization.

H3 : Green entrepreneurial orientation has a positive impact on employees’ PEB in an organization.

H4 : Environmental Commitment has a positive impact on employees’ PEB in an organization.

H5 : There is a significant correlation among green human resources management, green leadership, and environmental commitment.

The SEM MODEL in Fig.  2 was fitted to the data using PROC CALIS in SAS software. The results of the fit in terms of green aspects (independent factors) and PEB (dependent factor) are depicted in Table 7 . Based on the path analysis in Table 7 , all the indicators are significant in measuring each green aspect with a p-value < 0.05. Furthermore, the goodness of fit indices depicted in Table 8 show that the SRMR = 0.0670 which is acceptable, GFI = 0.9035, AGFI = 0.8485, and CFI = 0.9590 which are all close to 0.9. Hence, the goodness of fit values reveals an acceptable fit. Furthermore, to check the positive impact of each green aspect on employees’ PEB, H 1 –H 4 were tested. Consequently, the “green human resource management” and “green leadership” have a positive impact on “green entrepreneurial orientation” of employees with p-values of < 0.0001 and 0.0037, respectively; and “green entrepreneurial orientation” and “environmental commitment” have a positive impact on PEB of employees with p-values of 0.0229 and 0.0002, respectively. Moreover, the correlations among the exogenous factors (GHRM, green leadership, and environmental commitment) are tested (H 5 ) as shown in Table 9 . The results in Table 9 reveal that there is significant correlation between “green human resource management” and “green leadership” and between “green leadership” and “environmental commitment” with p-values of < 0.0001 and 0.0021. However, there is no significant correlation between “green human resource management” and “environmental commitment” with a p-value of 0.4254.

Univariate Statistical analysis

For further analysis, this subsection performs a Kruskal–Wallis (K-W) test which is a non-parametric statistical test that measures the differences among three or more independent sample groups on a single non-normally distributed variable (PEB) by comparing medians 66 . The K-W test was performed to investigate the impact of the employees’ years of experience (1–7, 8–15, 16–23, and 24 or above) and employees’ qualification (high school, diploma, college, and masters) on PEB. The K-W test for the differences between employees in terms of years of experience suggests that there is no evidence of difference in terms of the median PEB of employees, with a p-value of 0.2852. Moreover, the K-W test was performed to investigate the impact of the employees’ qualification on PEB. The K-W test for the differences between employees in terms of qualification suggests that there is no evidence of difference in terms of median PEB of employees, with a p-value of 0.5783.

Institutional review board statement

As per American University of Sharjah guidelines, an Institutional Review Board (IRB) form was submitted to the Office of the Institutional Research, and an official approval was obtained to collect the necessary data.

In this paper, the green aspects that are impacting on the employees’ PEB were investigated to study the relationship between some crucial green factors and Employee’s PEB. These dimensions are green entrepreneurial orientation of the organization, green leadership of the organization, environmental commitment of employees and GHRM of the organization. This study developed and tested a model that focuses on understanding the impact of the above green aspects (independent factors) on PEB (dependent factor), which results in a comprehensive conclusion on the significant factors that impact on PEB of employees in an organization in the UAE. The general findings of the study supported the proposed framework.

SEM approach was utilized to evaluate each green aspect’s impact on PEB of employees in a case organization in the UAE. It was found that “Green Human Resource Management” has a positive impact on “Green Entrepreneurial Orientation” of employees. Hence, H 1 is accepted. This finding was in line with the findings of a previous study 67 , which concluded that “green human resource management” improves the “green entrepreneurial orientation” of employees directly by incorporating environmental considerations in the recruitment and selection process. Research findings indicate that organizations integrating GHRM practices witness a significant increase in employees’ green entrepreneurial abilities, with a reported improvement in innovative environmental ideas generated by staff. Moreover, the study highlights that companies implementing GHRM strategies observe a rise in employee motivation towards PEB, leading to a notable enhancement in overall environmental performance within the organization. Additionally, the research emphasizes that GHRM initiatives contribute to an increase in employees’ green self-efficacy, empowering them to tackle environmental challenges creatively. These statistics demonstrate the tangible impact of GHRM on fostering green entrepreneurial orientation among employees, ultimately driving sustainable practices and outcomes in organizational settings.

Similarly, the proposed SEM model reveals that “green leadership” has a positive impact on “green entrepreneurial orientation” which reveals that H 2 is accepted. This result builds on a previous work 68 , which discloses that the role of “green leadership” on “green entrepreneurial orientation” is important. Green leadership plays a pivotal role in shaping the direction and success of green entrepreneurial orientation within Indian organizations. By embodying environmentally conscious values and practices, green leaders inspire and motivate employees to embrace sustainability initiatives, drive innovation, and foster a culture of environmental responsibility. Green leaders set the tone for the organization by championing eco-friendly practices, setting ambitious sustainability goals, and demonstrating a commitment to reducing environmental impact. Their visionary approach to sustainability not only influences day-to-day operations but also guides strategic decision-making towards green entrepreneurship. Through effective communication and role modeling, green leaders create a shared sense of purpose and direction, aligning employees with the organization’s environmental goals and fostering a collective commitment to sustainability. Moreover, green leadership encourages a mindset of continuous improvement and adaptation to changing environmental challenges, driving organizational agility and resilience in the face of sustainability issues. Overall, the positive impact of green leadership on green entrepreneurial orientation lies in its ability to cultivate a culture of innovation, environmental stewardship, and sustainable growth, positioning organizations as leaders in the green economy and driving long-term success in a rapidly evolving environmental landscape. The emphasis on green leadership aligns with broader societal trends towards sustainability communities and responsible business practices, making it a critical factor for organizations seeking to succeed in the twenty-first century.

It is also worth mentioning that the SEM model showed that “green entrepreneurial orientation” has a positive impact on PEB. This result is also supported by a previous work 67 , which concluded that “green entrepreneurial orientation” enhances the PEB which is in line with the results of this study (i.e., H 3 is accepted). Green entrepreneurial orientation plays a pivotal role in driving PEB among employees within organizations. By fostering a culture of innovation, creativity, and environmental consciousness, green entrepreneurial initiatives empower individuals to actively engage in sustainable practices. Employees with a green entrepreneurial mindset are more likely to identify environmental challenges as opportunities for positive change, leading to the development of innovative solutions and eco-friendly practices, which also fosters other stakeholders’ engagement. This orientation encourages employees to think beyond traditional approaches and explore novel ways to reduce environmental impact, such as implementing recycling programs, adopting energy-efficient technologies, or promoting sustainable resource management. Furthermore, green entrepreneurial orientation instills a sense of ownership and responsibility towards environmental stewardship, motivating individuals to proactively participate in green initiatives and advocate for eco-friendly policies within the organization. By nurturing a workforce that embraces green entrepreneurship, organizations can not only enhance their environmental performance but also cultivate a collective commitment to sustainability that extends beyond the workplace. This synergy between green entrepreneurial orientation and PEB not only drives positive environmental outcomes but also fosters a culture of environmental responsibility and innovation that is essential for addressing contemporary environmental challenges.

Lastly, the study concluded that “environmental commitment” has a positive impact on PEB of employees. Thus, H 4 is accepted. Consequently, previous research done 14 , 69 discovered evidence in favor of a favorable relationship between the perceived dedication to the environment and PEB. Environmental commitment refers to an individual’s dedication and responsibility towards the environment. It is a crucial factor in fostering PEB, which consciously seeks to minimize the negative impact of one’s actions on the natural and built world 70 . A study found that higher levels of commitment to the environment and greater inclusion of nature in the self separately predicted higher levels of PEB, even when controlling for social desirability and ecological worldview. This suggests that individuals who are more committed to the environment and feel a greater connection with nature are more likely to engage in behaviors that benefit the environment 71 . Another research focused on action research developing positive interactions between humans and the environment. More precisely, it reviewed commitment-making strategies and the effects of binding communication on the adoption of PEBs such as waste sorting, recycling, non-activist behaviors in the public sphere and energy saving. The study found that commitment, disagreement and binding communication can strengthen the positive characteristics of interactions between humans and the environment and, thereby, improve quality of life 72 . Building on that, it was found that higher levels of commitment to the environment and greater inclusion of nature in the self separately predicted higher levels of PEB. Besides, it was shown in a study that of rural residents, 91% are concerned about deforestation, 92% about plastic pollution and 90% about air pollution, with rural residents also being more likely to engage in personal behaviors to reduce their impacts on the climate 73 . This suggests that individuals who are more committed to the environment and feel a greater connection with nature are more likely to engage in behaviors that benefit the environment either in daily life activities or at workplace. This indicates a strong correlation between environmental commitment and PEB. By fostering a strong commitment to the environment, this encourages more sustainable communities and contributes to environmental preservation leading to stakeholders’ engagement to green practices 74 . However, it’s important to note that environmental commitment works best when combined with other factors such as environmental consciousness, social norms, and effective communication strategies 75 , 76 .

Overall, this study provides constructive insights into the factors that impact the PEB employees in workplace. This study emphasizes the impact of green entrepreneurial orientation, green leadership, environmental commitment, and GHRM on employees' PEB which fosters the willingness of employees and all stakeholders to engage in eco-friendly practices at work. These results highlight the importance of integrating sustainability into organizational practices to foster sustainable communities in the workforce which are committed to environmental responsibility. These represent solutions that address the needs of today's businesses while also safeguarding the environment and gaining widespread support 77 . Furthermore, the findings highlight that when employees perceive their organization as environmentally responsible, they are more likely to engage in PEB, creating positive feedback that reinforces the organization's commitment to sustainability and strengthens its relationships with stakeholders.

In the UAE context, where sustainability is a national priority, the study's findings are particularly relevant. Organizations that prioritize sustainability and actively engage with stakeholders can align themselves with the nation's vision for a sustainable future 78 . This alignment contributes to the overall well-being of the community, as well as positions the organization as a responsible corporate citizen, enhancing its reputation and fostering positive relationships with government agencies and regulatory bodies. By integrating sustainability into their operations and engaging with stakeholders, organizations in the UAE can play a crucial role in building sustainable communities and contributing to the nation's environmental goals.

Theoretical implications

This research on employees' PEB within UAE organizations significantly advances the theoretical understanding of the complex relationship between workplace green aspects and employees' perceptions of their own professional and personal growth. By highlighting the pivotal roles of green entrepreneurial orientation, green leadership, environmental commitment, and GHRM, this study contributes robustly to the evolving concept of sustainability within the organizational context. The findings illuminate a critical shift in employee awareness shedding light that organizations integrating eco-innovation and sustainable practices not only benefit the environment but also enhance employees' perceived career advancement opportunities 79 , 80 . This aligns with global trends wherein employees increasingly seek value-aligned employers 81 , underscoring the increasing importance of sustainability in the modern workplace. This is particularly noticeable in the UAE, where national policies actively prioritize sustainability, further amplifying the significance of these findings for both academic and practitioner audiences.

Practical implications

The practical implications of this study for organizations are diverse. Promoting green practices such as GHRM and Green Leadership is crucial, as these practices not only contribute to environmental sustainability but also positively impact employees' Green Entrepreneurial practices, fostering a culture of innovation and proactive environmental stewardship. Moreover, promoting environmental commitment among employees through awareness programs, training, and a sustainability-focused work culture can significantly enhance PEB, leading to a more engaged and environmentally conscious workforce. By encouraging innovative and proactive green initiatives, organizations can harness the positive impact of Green Entrepreneurial Orientation on PEB, driving the development and implementation of eco-friendly solutions.

The insights from this study can guide policymaking in organizations, enabling the design of policies that incentivize green practices and foster environmental commitment among employees. Organizations that successfully implement these practices can contribute to building sustainable communities through their environmentally responsible actions, enhancing their reputation and stakeholders’ engagement 82 , 83 . This can lead to a competitive advantage by attracting environmentally conscious customers and employees, fostering a positive brand image, and strengthening relationships with stakeholders who value sustainability. While implementing these practices requires commitment and strategic planning, the potential benefits for the organization, its stakeholders, and the environment are substantial, making it a worthwhile investment for a sustainable future.

Summary, conclusion, and recommendations

This research investigates the factors influencing employees' PEB within organizations in the UAE. It examines the impact of green entrepreneurial orientation, green leadership, environmental commitment, and GHRM on employees' PEB which fosters their willingness to engage in eco-friendly practices at work. The study employed a questionnaire-based survey of 146 employees in an automotive division of a UAE company, utilizing structural equation modeling (SEM) to analyze the data. The study’s findings reveal that GHRM and green leadership significantly influence employees’ green entrepreneurial orientation. In turn, both green entrepreneurial orientation and environmental commitment positively impact employees' PEB. These results underscore the importance of integrating sustainability into organizational culture, leadership, and human resource practices to foster a workforce that actively participates in environmental initiatives. Consequently, this research provides valuable insights into the specific factors that drive PEB in the UAE context, where national policies prioritize sustainability. It highlights the importance of not only implementing green practices but also cultivating a supportive environment that encourages employees to embrace and champion environmental sustainability. The study also sheds light on the role of green entrepreneurial orientation, suggesting that empowering employees to develop innovative environmental solutions can be a key driver of PEB. The SEM analysis confirmed the positive impact of GHRM (p < 0.0001) and green leadership (p = 0.0037) on green entrepreneurial orientation. Additionally, green entrepreneurial orientation (p = 0.0229) and environmental commitment (p = 0.0002) were found to significantly influence PEB. These results have practical implications for organizations in the UAE and beyond.

The study emphasizes that integrating eco-friendly practices benefits both the environment and employee development. It highlights the importance of green leadership, environmental commitment, GHRM practices, and green entrepreneurial initiatives. To achieve this, the study provides several recommendations for organizations, particularly in the UAE. Firstly, organizations should prioritize comprehensive GHRM strategies. This entails integrating environmental considerations throughout all HR functions, from recruitment to performance management. Secondly, fostering a culture of environmental commitment is crucial. This involves open communication about the importance of sustainability, recognizing employees' PEBs, and providing opportunities for participation in green initiatives, this drives sustainable communities. Thirdly, promoting green leadership at all levels is essential. Green leaders act as champions for sustainability, inspiring employees and driving green stakeholder engagement. Finally, organizations should encourage and support green entrepreneurship. This means providing resources and platforms for employees to develop and implement innovative environmental solutions. By adopting these recommendations, organizations can create a work environment that fosters not only environmental well-being but also enhanced stakeholder engagement, satisfaction, and overall well-being. This ultimately positions them as environmentally responsible businesses with a competitive edge in attracting and retaining top talent.

Moreover, future research in this area could explore additional dimensions of green aspects that may influence employees' awareness and adaptability to PEB measures. For instance, investigating the impact of work atmosphere, direct managers/supervisors, financial situations, and social factors on employees' PEB could provide further insights into the complex interplay between organizational dynamics and environmental behaviors. Additionally, extending the study to different business divisions and comparing results across various sectors could offer a more comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing PEB in different organizational contexts. Furthermore, validating the findings in other countries and assessing the potential impact of geographic location on employees' awareness of PEB could help broaden the generalizability of the results and provide valuable cross-cultural insights into the relationship between green aspects and employees' environmental behaviors. By expanding the scope of research in this field and exploring new dimensions of green aspects, future studies can contribute to the ongoing discourse on sustainability in the workplace and offer practical recommendations for organizations seeking to enhance their environmental initiatives and promote a culture of environmental responsibility among employees.

Data availability

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

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The authors are grateful for the comments and suggestions by the referees and the handling Editor. Their comments and suggestions have greatly improved the paper. The authors also gratefully acknowledge that the work in this paper was supported, in part, by the Open Access Program from the American University of Sharjah.

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Alherimi, N., Marva, Z., Hamarsheh, K. et al. Employees’ pro-environmental behavior in an organization: a case study in the UAE. Sci Rep 14 , 15371 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-66047-4

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Human Subjects Office

Medical terms in lay language.

Please use these descriptions in place of medical jargon in consent documents, recruitment materials and other study documents. Note: These terms are not the only acceptable plain language alternatives for these vocabulary words.

This glossary of terms is derived from a list copyrighted by the University of Kentucky, Office of Research Integrity (1990).

For clinical research-specific definitions, see also the Clinical Research Glossary developed by the Multi-Regional Clinical Trials (MRCT) Center of Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard  and the Clinical Data Interchange Standards Consortium (CDISC) .

Alternative Lay Language for Medical Terms for use in Informed Consent Documents

A   B   C   D   E   F   G   H   I  J  K   L   M   N   O   P   Q   R   S   T   U   V   W  X  Y  Z

ABDOMEN/ABDOMINAL body cavity below diaphragm that contains stomach, intestines, liver and other organs ABSORB take up fluids, take in ACIDOSIS condition when blood contains more acid than normal ACUITY clearness, keenness, esp. of vision and airways ACUTE new, recent, sudden, urgent ADENOPATHY swollen lymph nodes (glands) ADJUVANT helpful, assisting, aiding, supportive ADJUVANT TREATMENT added treatment (usually to a standard treatment) ANTIBIOTIC drug that kills bacteria and other germs ANTIMICROBIAL drug that kills bacteria and other germs ANTIRETROVIRAL drug that works against the growth of certain viruses ADVERSE EFFECT side effect, bad reaction, unwanted response ALLERGIC REACTION rash, hives, swelling, trouble breathing AMBULATE/AMBULATION/AMBULATORY walk, able to walk ANAPHYLAXIS serious, potentially life-threatening allergic reaction ANEMIA decreased red blood cells; low red cell blood count ANESTHETIC a drug or agent used to decrease the feeling of pain, or eliminate the feeling of pain by putting you to sleep ANGINA pain resulting from not enough blood flowing to the heart ANGINA PECTORIS pain resulting from not enough blood flowing to the heart ANOREXIA disorder in which person will not eat; lack of appetite ANTECUBITAL related to the inner side of the forearm ANTIBODY protein made in the body in response to foreign substance ANTICONVULSANT drug used to prevent seizures ANTILIPEMIC a drug that lowers fat levels in the blood ANTITUSSIVE a drug used to relieve coughing ARRHYTHMIA abnormal heartbeat; any change from the normal heartbeat ASPIRATION fluid entering the lungs, such as after vomiting ASSAY lab test ASSESS to learn about, measure, evaluate, look at ASTHMA lung disease associated with tightening of air passages, making breathing difficult ASYMPTOMATIC without symptoms AXILLA armpit

BENIGN not malignant, without serious consequences BID twice a day BINDING/BOUND carried by, to make stick together, transported BIOAVAILABILITY the extent to which a drug or other substance becomes available to the body BLOOD PROFILE series of blood tests BOLUS a large amount given all at once BONE MASS the amount of calcium and other minerals in a given amount of bone BRADYARRHYTHMIAS slow, irregular heartbeats BRADYCARDIA slow heartbeat BRONCHOSPASM breathing distress caused by narrowing of the airways

CARCINOGENIC cancer-causing CARCINOMA type of cancer CARDIAC related to the heart CARDIOVERSION return to normal heartbeat by electric shock CATHETER a tube for withdrawing or giving fluids CATHETER a tube placed near the spinal cord and used for anesthesia (indwelling epidural) during surgery CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) brain and spinal cord CEREBRAL TRAUMA damage to the brain CESSATION stopping CHD coronary heart disease CHEMOTHERAPY treatment of disease, usually cancer, by chemical agents CHRONIC continuing for a long time, ongoing CLINICAL pertaining to medical care CLINICAL TRIAL an experiment involving human subjects COMA unconscious state COMPLETE RESPONSE total disappearance of disease CONGENITAL present before birth CONJUNCTIVITIS redness and irritation of the thin membrane that covers the eye CONSOLIDATION PHASE treatment phase intended to make a remission permanent (follows induction phase) CONTROLLED TRIAL research study in which the experimental treatment or procedure is compared to a standard (control) treatment or procedure COOPERATIVE GROUP association of multiple institutions to perform clinical trials CORONARY related to the blood vessels that supply the heart, or to the heart itself CT SCAN (CAT) computerized series of x-rays (computerized tomography) CULTURE test for infection, or for organisms that could cause infection CUMULATIVE added together from the beginning CUTANEOUS relating to the skin CVA stroke (cerebrovascular accident)

DERMATOLOGIC pertaining to the skin DIASTOLIC lower number in a blood pressure reading DISTAL toward the end, away from the center of the body DIURETIC "water pill" or drug that causes increase in urination DOPPLER device using sound waves to diagnose or test DOUBLE BLIND study in which neither investigators nor subjects know what drug or treatment the subject is receiving DYSFUNCTION state of improper function DYSPLASIA abnormal cells

ECHOCARDIOGRAM sound wave test of the heart EDEMA excess fluid collecting in tissue EEG electric brain wave tracing (electroencephalogram) EFFICACY effectiveness ELECTROCARDIOGRAM electrical tracing of the heartbeat (ECG or EKG) ELECTROLYTE IMBALANCE an imbalance of minerals in the blood EMESIS vomiting EMPIRIC based on experience ENDOSCOPIC EXAMINATION viewing an  internal part of the body with a lighted tube  ENTERAL by way of the intestines EPIDURAL outside the spinal cord ERADICATE get rid of (such as disease) Page 2 of 7 EVALUATED, ASSESSED examined for a medical condition EXPEDITED REVIEW rapid review of a protocol by the IRB Chair without full committee approval, permitted with certain low-risk research studies EXTERNAL outside the body EXTRAVASATE to leak outside of a planned area, such as out of a blood vessel

FDA U.S. Food and Drug Administration, the branch of federal government that approves new drugs FIBROUS having many fibers, such as scar tissue FIBRILLATION irregular beat of the heart or other muscle

GENERAL ANESTHESIA pain prevention by giving drugs to cause loss of consciousness, as during surgery GESTATIONAL pertaining to pregnancy

HEMATOCRIT amount of red blood cells in the blood HEMATOMA a bruise, a black and blue mark HEMODYNAMIC MEASURING blood flow HEMOLYSIS breakdown in red blood cells HEPARIN LOCK needle placed in the arm with blood thinner to keep the blood from clotting HEPATOMA cancer or tumor of the liver HERITABLE DISEASE can be transmitted to one’s offspring, resulting in damage to future children HISTOPATHOLOGIC pertaining to the disease status of body tissues or cells HOLTER MONITOR a portable machine for recording heart beats HYPERCALCEMIA high blood calcium level HYPERKALEMIA high blood potassium level HYPERNATREMIA high blood sodium level HYPERTENSION high blood pressure HYPOCALCEMIA low blood calcium level HYPOKALEMIA low blood potassium level HYPONATREMIA low blood sodium level HYPOTENSION low blood pressure HYPOXEMIA a decrease of oxygen in the blood HYPOXIA a decrease of oxygen reaching body tissues HYSTERECTOMY surgical removal of the uterus, ovaries (female sex glands), or both uterus and ovaries

IATROGENIC caused by a physician or by treatment IDE investigational device exemption, the license to test an unapproved new medical device IDIOPATHIC of unknown cause IMMUNITY defense against, protection from IMMUNOGLOBIN a protein that makes antibodies IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE drug which works against the body's immune (protective) response, often used in transplantation and diseases caused by immune system malfunction IMMUNOTHERAPY giving of drugs to help the body's immune (protective) system; usually used to destroy cancer cells IMPAIRED FUNCTION abnormal function IMPLANTED placed in the body IND investigational new drug, the license to test an unapproved new drug INDUCTION PHASE beginning phase or stage of a treatment INDURATION hardening INDWELLING remaining in a given location, such as a catheter INFARCT death of tissue due to lack of blood supply INFECTIOUS DISEASE transmitted from one person to the next INFLAMMATION swelling that is generally painful, red, and warm INFUSION slow injection of a substance into the body, usually into the blood by means of a catheter INGESTION eating; taking by mouth INTERFERON drug which acts against viruses; antiviral agent INTERMITTENT occurring (regularly or irregularly) between two time points; repeatedly stopping, then starting again INTERNAL within the body INTERIOR inside of the body INTRAMUSCULAR into the muscle; within the muscle INTRAPERITONEAL into the abdominal cavity INTRATHECAL into the spinal fluid INTRAVENOUS (IV) through the vein INTRAVESICAL in the bladder INTUBATE the placement of a tube into the airway INVASIVE PROCEDURE puncturing, opening, or cutting the skin INVESTIGATIONAL NEW DRUG (IND) a new drug that has not been approved by the FDA INVESTIGATIONAL METHOD a treatment method which has not been proven to be beneficial or has not been accepted as standard care ISCHEMIA decreased oxygen in a tissue (usually because of decreased blood flow)

LAPAROTOMY surgical procedure in which an incision is made in the abdominal wall to enable a doctor to look at the organs inside LESION wound or injury; a diseased patch of skin LETHARGY sleepiness, tiredness LEUKOPENIA low white blood cell count LIPID fat LIPID CONTENT fat content in the blood LIPID PROFILE (PANEL) fat and cholesterol levels in the blood LOCAL ANESTHESIA creation of insensitivity to pain in a small, local area of the body, usually by injection of numbing drugs LOCALIZED restricted to one area, limited to one area LUMEN the cavity of an organ or tube (e.g., blood vessel) LYMPHANGIOGRAPHY an x-ray of the lymph nodes or tissues after injecting dye into lymph vessels (e.g., in feet) LYMPHOCYTE a type of white blood cell important in immunity (protection) against infection LYMPHOMA a cancer of the lymph nodes (or tissues)

MALAISE a vague feeling of bodily discomfort, feeling badly MALFUNCTION condition in which something is not functioning properly MALIGNANCY cancer or other progressively enlarging and spreading tumor, usually fatal if not successfully treated MEDULLABLASTOMA a type of brain tumor MEGALOBLASTOSIS change in red blood cells METABOLIZE process of breaking down substances in the cells to obtain energy METASTASIS spread of cancer cells from one part of the body to another METRONIDAZOLE drug used to treat infections caused by parasites (invading organisms that take up living in the body) or other causes of anaerobic infection (not requiring oxygen to survive) MI myocardial infarction, heart attack MINIMAL slight MINIMIZE reduce as much as possible Page 4 of 7 MONITOR check on; keep track of; watch carefully MOBILITY ease of movement MORBIDITY undesired result or complication MORTALITY death MOTILITY the ability to move MRI magnetic resonance imaging, diagnostic pictures of the inside of the body, created using magnetic rather than x-ray energy MUCOSA, MUCOUS MEMBRANE moist lining of digestive, respiratory, reproductive, and urinary tracts MYALGIA muscle aches MYOCARDIAL pertaining to the heart muscle MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION heart attack

NASOGASTRIC TUBE placed in the nose, reaching to the stomach NCI the National Cancer Institute NECROSIS death of tissue NEOPLASIA/NEOPLASM tumor, may be benign or malignant NEUROBLASTOMA a cancer of nerve tissue NEUROLOGICAL pertaining to the nervous system NEUTROPENIA decrease in the main part of the white blood cells NIH the National Institutes of Health NONINVASIVE not breaking, cutting, or entering the skin NOSOCOMIAL acquired in the hospital

OCCLUSION closing; blockage; obstruction ONCOLOGY the study of tumors or cancer OPHTHALMIC pertaining to the eye OPTIMAL best, most favorable or desirable ORAL ADMINISTRATION by mouth ORTHOPEDIC pertaining to the bones OSTEOPETROSIS rare bone disorder characterized by dense bone OSTEOPOROSIS softening of the bones OVARIES female sex glands

PARENTERAL given by injection PATENCY condition of being open PATHOGENESIS development of a disease or unhealthy condition PERCUTANEOUS through the skin PERIPHERAL not central PER OS (PO) by mouth PHARMACOKINETICS the study of the way the body absorbs, distributes, and gets rid of a drug PHASE I first phase of study of a new drug in humans to determine action, safety, and proper dosing PHASE II second phase of study of a new drug in humans, intended to gather information about safety and effectiveness of the drug for certain uses PHASE III large-scale studies to confirm and expand information on safety and effectiveness of new drug for certain uses, and to study common side effects PHASE IV studies done after the drug is approved by the FDA, especially to compare it to standard care or to try it for new uses PHLEBITIS irritation or inflammation of the vein PLACEBO an inactive substance; a pill/liquid that contains no medicine PLACEBO EFFECT improvement seen with giving subjects a placebo, though it contains no active drug/treatment PLATELETS small particles in the blood that help with clotting POTENTIAL possible POTENTIATE increase or multiply the effect of a drug or toxin (poison) by giving another drug or toxin at the same time (sometimes an unintentional result) POTENTIATOR an agent that helps another agent work better PRENATAL before birth PROPHYLAXIS a drug given to prevent disease or infection PER OS (PO) by mouth PRN as needed PROGNOSIS outlook, probable outcomes PRONE lying on the stomach PROSPECTIVE STUDY following patients forward in time PROSTHESIS artificial part, most often limbs, such as arms or legs PROTOCOL plan of study PROXIMAL closer to the center of the body, away from the end PULMONARY pertaining to the lungs

QD every day; daily QID four times a day

RADIATION THERAPY x-ray or cobalt treatment RANDOM by chance (like the flip of a coin) RANDOMIZATION chance selection RBC red blood cell RECOMBINANT formation of new combinations of genes RECONSTITUTION putting back together the original parts or elements RECUR happen again REFRACTORY not responding to treatment REGENERATION re-growth of a structure or of lost tissue REGIMEN pattern of giving treatment RELAPSE the return of a disease REMISSION disappearance of evidence of cancer or other disease RENAL pertaining to the kidneys REPLICABLE possible to duplicate RESECT remove or cut out surgically RETROSPECTIVE STUDY looking back over past experience

SARCOMA a type of cancer SEDATIVE a drug to calm or make less anxious SEMINOMA a type of testicular cancer (found in the male sex glands) SEQUENTIALLY in a row, in order SOMNOLENCE sleepiness SPIROMETER an instrument to measure the amount of air taken into and exhaled from the lungs STAGING an evaluation of the extent of the disease STANDARD OF CARE a treatment plan that the majority of the medical community would accept as appropriate STENOSIS narrowing of a duct, tube, or one of the blood vessels in the heart STOMATITIS mouth sores, inflammation of the mouth STRATIFY arrange in groups for analysis of results (e.g., stratify by age, sex, etc.) STUPOR stunned state in which it is difficult to get a response or the attention of the subject SUBCLAVIAN under the collarbone SUBCUTANEOUS under the skin SUPINE lying on the back SUPPORTIVE CARE general medical care aimed at symptoms, not intended to improve or cure underlying disease SYMPTOMATIC having symptoms SYNDROME a condition characterized by a set of symptoms SYSTOLIC top number in blood pressure; pressure during active contraction of the heart

TERATOGENIC capable of causing malformations in a fetus (developing baby still inside the mother’s body) TESTES/TESTICLES male sex glands THROMBOSIS clotting THROMBUS blood clot TID three times a day TITRATION a method for deciding on the strength of a drug or solution; gradually increasing the dose T-LYMPHOCYTES type of white blood cells TOPICAL on the surface TOPICAL ANESTHETIC applied to a certain area of the skin and reducing pain only in the area to which applied TOXICITY side effects or undesirable effects of a drug or treatment TRANSDERMAL through the skin TRANSIENTLY temporarily TRAUMA injury; wound TREADMILL walking machine used to test heart function

UPTAKE absorbing and taking in of a substance by living tissue

VALVULOPLASTY plastic repair of a valve, especially a heart valve VARICES enlarged veins VASOSPASM narrowing of the blood vessels VECTOR a carrier that can transmit disease-causing microorganisms (germs and viruses) VENIPUNCTURE needle stick, blood draw, entering the skin with a needle VERTICAL TRANSMISSION spread of disease

WBC white blood cell

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Customers’ perception of microfinance services as a tool for rural development: a romanian case study.

1. Introduction

2. literature review, 3. materials and methods, 3.1. instrument design, sample size and data collection, 3.2. data analysis, 4.1. scale reliability and validity, 4.2. services’ quality dimensions, 5. discussion, 6. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Share and Cite

Henegar, D.; Ilieș, G.L.; Mureșan, I.C.; Poruțiu, A.R.; Arion, I.D.; Arion, F.H. Customers’ Perception of Microfinance Services as a Tool for Rural Development: A Romanian Case Study. Agriculture 2024 , 14 , 1087. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14071087

Henegar D, Ilieș GL, Mureșan IC, Poruțiu AR, Arion ID, Arion FH. Customers’ Perception of Microfinance Services as a Tool for Rural Development: A Romanian Case Study. Agriculture . 2024; 14(7):1087. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14071087

Henegar, Denisa, Garofița Loredana Ilieș, Iulia C. Mureșan, Andra Ramona Poruțiu, Iulia Diana Arion, and Felix H. Arion. 2024. "Customers’ Perception of Microfinance Services as a Tool for Rural Development: A Romanian Case Study" Agriculture 14, no. 7: 1087. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14071087

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Research: Using AI at Work Makes Us Lonelier and Less Healthy

• David De Cremer
• Joel Koopman

Employees who use AI as a core part of their jobs report feeling more isolated, drinking more, and sleeping less than employees who don’t.

The promise of AI is alluring — optimized productivity, lightning-fast data analysis, and freedom from mundane tasks — and both companies and workers alike are fascinated (and more than a little dumbfounded) by how these tools allow them to do more and better work faster than ever before. Yet in fervor to keep pace with competitors and reap the efficiency gains associated with deploying AI, many organizations have lost sight of their most important asset: the humans whose jobs are being fragmented into tasks that are increasingly becoming automated. Across four studies, employees who use it as a core part of their jobs reported feeling lonelier, drinking more, and suffering from insomnia more than employees who don’t.

Imagine this: Jia, a marketing analyst, arrives at work, logs into her computer, and is greeted by an AI assistant that has already sorted through her emails, prioritized her tasks for the day, and generated first drafts of reports that used to take hours to write. Jia (like everyone who has spent time working with these tools) marvels at how much time she can save by using AI. Inspired by the efficiency-enhancing effects of AI, Jia feels that she can be so much more productive than before. As a result, she gets focused on completing as many tasks as possible in conjunction with her AI assistant.

• David De Cremer is a professor of management and technology at Northeastern University and the Dunton Family Dean of its D’Amore-McKim School of Business. His website is daviddecremer.com .
• JK Joel Koopman is the TJ Barlow Professor of Business Administration at the Mays Business School of Texas A&M University. His research interests include prosocial behavior, organizational justice, motivational processes, and research methodology. He has won multiple awards from Academy of Management’s HR Division (Early Career Achievement Award and David P. Lepak Service Award) along with the 2022 SIOP Distinguished Early Career Contributions award, and currently serves on the Leadership Committee for the HR Division of the Academy of Management .

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