internet addiction thesis

THE EFFECT OF INTERNET ADDICTION ON STUDENTS' EMOTIONAL AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

• January 2017
• e-Academia Journal 6(1):86-98
• This person is not on ResearchGate, or hasn't claimed this research yet.

• Universiti Teknologi MARA

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The impact of internet addiction on mental health: exploring the mediating effects of positive psychological capital in university students.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

1.1. benefits of psychological capital, 1.2. conceptual framework, internet addiction, psychological capital, and mental health, 1.3. gaps in the literature, 1.4. research questions and hypotheses.

• To what extent do the Amharic versions of the Internet Addiction Scale (IAS), the Psychological Capital Questionnaire (PCQ-24), and the Mental Health Continuum-Short Form (MHC-SF) exhibit high levels of reliability and validity?
• Is there a negative relationship between Internet Addiction (IA) and Psychological Capital (PsyCap) and Mental health (MH) among undergraduate young students?
• Does PsyCap positively predict MH among undergraduate young university students?
• Does PsyCap mediate the relationship between IA and MH among undergraduate young university students?

2.1. Research Design

2.2. sample and sampling, 2.3. instruments, 2.3.1. socio-demographic information, 2.3.2. internet addiction scale (ias), 2.3.3. psychological capital questionnaire (pcq-24), 2.3.4. mental health continuum-short form [mhc-sf], 2.4. statistical data analysis, 2.5. procedures of the studies, 2.5.1. adaption, translation, and validation of the measures, 2.5.2. ethics of this study, 3.1. results of preliminary analysis, 3.1.1. descriptive statistics, skewness, and kurtosis, 3.1.2. multi-collinearity, 3.1.3. reliability and validity evidence of the main variables, 3.1.4. measurement and structural model.

Click here to enlarge figure

3.1.5. Mediation Testing Using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)

4. discussion, 5. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Share and Cite

Zewude, G.T.; Bereded, D.G.; Abera, E.; Tegegne, G.; Goraw, S.; Segon, T. The Impact of Internet Addiction on Mental Health: Exploring the Mediating Effects of Positive Psychological Capital in University Students. Adolescents 2024 , 4 , 200-221. https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents4020014

Zewude GT, Bereded DG, Abera E, Tegegne G, Goraw S, Segon T. The Impact of Internet Addiction on Mental Health: Exploring the Mediating Effects of Positive Psychological Capital in University Students. Adolescents . 2024; 4(2):200-221. https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents4020014

Zewude, Girum Tareke, Derib Gosim Bereded, Endris Abera, Goche Tegegne, Solomon Goraw, and Tesfaye Segon. 2024. "The Impact of Internet Addiction on Mental Health: Exploring the Mediating Effects of Positive Psychological Capital in University Students" Adolescents 4, no. 2: 200-221. https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents4020014

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A study of internet addiction and its effects on mental health: A study based on Iranian University Students

Affiliations.

• 1 Health Education and Health Promotion, Health Institute, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran.
• 2 Social Determinants in Health Promotion Research Center, Hormozgan Health Institute, Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences, Bandar Abbas, Iran.
• 3 Antai College of Economics and Management/School of Media and Communication, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai-China.
• 4 Department of Health Care Services and Health Education, School of Health, Ardabil University of Medical Science, Ardabil, Iran.
• 5 Department of Anatomical Sciences, Medical School, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran.
• 6 Health Management and Economics Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
• 7 Students Research Committee, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran.
• PMID: 33062738
• PMCID: PMC7530416
• DOI: 10.4103/jehp.jehp_148_20

Introduction: The Internet has drastically affected human behavior, and it has positive and negative effects; however, its excessive usage exposes users to internet addiction. The diagnosis of students' mental dysfunction is vital to monitor their academic progress and success by preventing this technology through proper handling of the usage addiction.

Materials and methods: This descriptive-analytical study selected 447 students (232 females and 215 males) of the first and second semesters enrolled at Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Iran, in 2018 by using Cochrane's sample size formula and stratified random sampling. The study applied Young's Internet Addiction Test and Goldberg General Health Questionnaire 28 for data collection. The study screened the data received and analyzed valid data set through the t -test and Pearson's correlation coefficient by incorporating SPSS Statistics software version 23.0.

Results: The results of the current study specified that the total mean score of the students for internet addiction and mental health was 3.81 ± 0.88 and 2.56 ± 0.33, correspondingly. The results revealed that internet addiction positively correlated with depression and mental health, which indicated a negative relationship ( P > 0.001). The multiple regression analysis results showed students' five significant vulnerability predictors toward internet addiction, such as the critical reason for using the Internet, faculty, depression, the central place for using the Internet, and somatic symptoms.

Conclusions: The study findings specified that students' excessive internet usage leads to anxiety, depression, and adverse mental health, which affect their academic performance. Monitoring and controlling students' internet addiction through informative sessions on how to use the Internet adequately is useful.

Keywords: Internet addiction; medical sciences; mental health; students; technology advancement.

Copyright: © 2020 Journal of Education and Health Promotion.

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Conflict of interest statement

There are no conflicts of interest.

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Study of internet addiction and its association with depression and insomnia in university students

Jain, Akhilesh 1 ; Sharma, Rekha 2 ; Gaur, Kusum Lata 3 ; Yadav, Neelam 4 ; Sharma, Poonam 5 ; Sharma, Nikita 5 ; Khan, Nazish 5 ; Kumawat, Priyanka 5 ; Jain, Garima 4 ; Maanju, Mukesh 1 ; Sinha, Kartik Mohan 6 ; Yadav, Kuldeep S. 1,

1 Department of Psychiatry, ESIC Model Hospital, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India

2 Department of Ophthalmology, ESIC Model Hospital, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India

3 Department of PSM, SMS Medical College, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India

4 Department of Medicine, ESIC Model Hospital, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India

5 Department of Psychology, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India

6 Manipal University, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India

Address for correspondence: Dr. Kuldeep S. Yadav, Senior Resident, Department of Psychiatry, ESIC Model Hospital, 3-D/162, Chitrakoot, Ajmer Road, Jaipur - 302 021, Rajasthan, India. E-mail: [email protected]

Received December 18, 2019

Received in revised form January 31, 2020

Accepted February 12, 2020

Introduction: 

Use of internet has increased exponentially worldwide with prevalence of internet addiction ranging from 1.6% to 18 % or even higher. Depression and insomnia has been linked with internet addiction and overuse in several studies.

Aims and Objectives: 

Present study has looked in to pattern and prevalence of internet addiction in university students. This study has also explored the association of internet addiction with depression and insomnia.

Material and Methods: 

In this cross sectional study 954 subjects were enrolled who had been using internet for past 6 months. Information regarding pattern of use and socio demographic characteristics were recorded. Internet addiction Test (IAT), PHQ-9,and insomnia Severity Index (ISI) were applied to measure internet addiction, depression and insomnia respectively.

Results: 

Among 954 subjects, 518 (60.59%) were male and 376 (39.41%) were female with mean age of 23.81 (SD ± 3.72). 15.51% study subjects were internet addicts and 49.19% were over users. Several parameters including graduation level, time spent per day on line, place of internet use, smoking and alcohol had significant association with internet addiction. Internet addiction was predominantly associated with depression and insomnia.

Conclusion: 

Internet addiction is a rising concern among youth. Several parameters including gender, time spent on line, alcohol, smoking predicts higher risk of internet addiction. Depression and insomnia are more common in internet addicts and overusers.

Introduction

Exponential growth in internet use has been observed across the world including India in the last decade. About 205 million internet users were reported in India in 2012 including both rural and urban population and it was predicted that India will become the second leading country after China in internet usage.[ 1 ] Internet is used for various reasons such as interpersonal communication, exploring information, business transactions, and entertainment. However, it can also provide an opportunity to engage in excessive chatting, pornography, gaming, or even gambling. There have been growing concerns worldwide for what has been labeled as “internet addiction.”

Dr. Ivan Goldberg suggested the term “internet addiction” in 1995 for pathological compulsive internet use.[ 2 ] Excessive internet use was closely linked to pathological gambling by Young[ 3 ] who adapted the DSM IV criteria to relate to internet use in the internet addiction test (IAT) developed by her. The prevalence of internet addiction has been reported ranging from 1.6% to 18% in different populations.[ 4 5 ]

General population surveys show a prevalence of 0.3–0.7%.[ 6 ] with addicted spending average 38.5 h/week on a computer as compared to the nonaddicted averaged 4.9 h/week. Goel[ 7 ] has reported 24.8% as possible addicts, and 0.7% as addicts in his study of internet addiction among Indian adolescents.

Overuse of the internet has been linked with many psychological conditions including anxiety, depression, and insomnia. Several studies[ 8 9 ] have shown that among users addicted to the internet, depression has much prevalence than normal users. Akini and Iskender[ 10 ] have reported that depression and anxiety are significant predictors of internet addiction in a study among Turkish students.

There is an influence of problematic internet use or internet addiction on sleep patterns. Increased time spent on the internet may disrupt the sleep-wake schedule significantly, and a higher rate of sleep disturbance takes place among heavy internet users.[ 11 ] Wong[ 12 ] studied the impact of online addiction on insomnia and depression on Hong Kong adolescents. The findings showed that “internet addiction was associated significantly with insomnia and depression”. These data imply that possible complex mechanisms exist between insomnia, internet addiction, and depression.

Internet use has been overwhelmingly increasing in India, involving especially the youth population. Since adolescents contribute a significant proportion of the productive life age of our country, their involvement with internet overuse or addiction may lead to significant adverse consequences such as sleep disturbance, psychological and physical problems leading to academic decline. Although many studies have been conducted regarding internet addiction in India, nevertheless, not much has been studied in the state of Rajasthan in this regard. Hence, the present study was planned to investigate the pattern and prevalence of internet usage in young adults and its relationship with insomnia and depression in college-going youth.

Material and Method

This cross-sectional study included 1000 students of both sexes using the internet for the past 6 months from different streams in the University of Rajasthan and affiliated colleges. Formula n = z 2 × pq/d 2 was used to determine the study sample size where n represents a total number of sample, z corresponds to value at 95% confidence interval, P stands for the prevalence of internet addiction in the previous study i.e. almost 44 percent,[ 13 ] and d represents allowable error. Thus, a sample size of about 600 students was considered appropriate. This study included 1000 students out of which 46 students opted out in the middle of the study, hence 954 students finally constituted the study sample. The study participants were selected using simple random sampling. Approval was obtained from the concerned authority. Participants were informed about the nature and purpose of the study before including them in the study.

Only those participants constituted the study group who had been using the internet for the past 6 months and were willing to participate in the study. Those who did not choose to participate, having major medical or surgical problems, history of psychosis or mania, MDD, or any other mental disorder were excluded from the study.

Information was collected on a specially designed semi-structured performa containing details of demographics, educational qualification, and status, purpose of using the internet (by choosing among the options like education, entertainment, social networking or other purpose), money spent per month, place of access (home, cybercafé, or workplace if working part-time), the time of day when the internet is accessed the most (by choosing between morning, afternoon, evening, or night), and the average duration of use per day.

Internet addiction, depression, and insomnia were assessed on IAT, patient health questionnaire (PHQ-9), and insomnia severity index (ISI), respectively.

Internet addiction test (IAT)

The IAT[ 3 ] is a 20-item 5-point Likert scale that measures the severity of self-reported compulsive use of the internet. According to Young's criteria, total IAT scores 20–39 represent average users with complete control of their internet use, scores 40–69 represent over-users with frequent problems caused by their internet use, and scores 70–100 represent the internet addicts with significant problems caused by their internet use.

Patient health questionnaire (PHQ-9)

A self-report version of PRIME-MD11 which assesses the presence of major depressive disorder using modified diagnostic and statistical manual, fourth edition (DSM-IV) criteria.[ 14 ] In this study, the Hindi version of PHQ-9 was used. It has been validated in the Indian population and is considered to be a reliable tool for the diagnosis of depression. For the diagnosis of depression, we define clinical significant depression as a PHQ-9 score of 8–9 as minor depression, a PHQ-9 score of 10 or greater as moderate depression; a score of 15 or more and one of the two cardinal symptoms (either depressed mood or anhedonia) as definite major depression. We considered PHQ 9 score of 10 or more as depression in this study.

Insomnia severity index (ISI)

ISI is one of the most commonly used disease-specific measures for self-perceived insomnia severity. The ISI has 7 items describing insomnia-related health impairments.[ 15 ] Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert scale. In clinical assessments, the ISI total summary score falls into 1 of 4 ISI categories; with scores 0–7, 8–14, 15–21, and 22–28 indicating no clinically significant insomnia, sub-threshold insomnia, moderate insomnia and, clinically severe insomnia, respectively.

We used the Hindi version of the ISI[ 16 ] Clinically, significant insomnia was detected only when the ISI score was >14.

Statistical analysis

All data collected were entered into the Microsoft excel 2007 worksheet in the form of a master chart. These data were classified and analyzed as per the aims and objectives. The data on sample characteristics were described in the form of tables. Categorical variables were tabulated using frequencies and percentages. Inferential statistics such as the Chi-square test were used to find out the association of internet usage with various factors. Odds ratio (OR) was used to find out the association of insomnia and PHQ levels with internet usage.

This study was a cross-sectional questionnaire-based study conducted among university students from different faculties.

Around 954 subjects with age ranging from 17 to 34 years were included in this study. The mean age was 23.81 years with a 3.72 standard deviation. Males were 578 (60.59%) and females were 376 (39.41%). Out of total subjects, 412 (43.19%) were internet over users and 148 (15.51%) were addicts [ Table 1 ].

Out of 954 subjects, 537 were postgraduates while 417 were undergraduates [ Table 2 ]. Among postgraduates (PG) 96 (17.88%) had internet addiction and 241 (44.88%) were over users, whereas the proportion of internet addicts and over users among undergraduates (UG) was 12.47% and 41.01%, respectively [ Table 3 ]. This association was statistically significant. Similarly, on application of Chi-square test, significant association was found between place of internet usage and addiction as 68 (25.19%) subjects were addicted and 128 (47.41%) were over users among those who were using internet at workplace as compared to 141 (16.51%) addicts and 360 (47.41%) over users among those using it at home. In this study, 86 subjects were smokers and 88 were alcoholics and the association of these personal habits and internet usage was also significant on the application of the Chi-square test. Out of them 86 smokers, 27 (31.40%) were addicted and 34 (39.53%) were over users and out of 88 alcoholics, 10 (11.36%) were addicted and 45 (51.14%) were over users. Considering duration of internet usage, it was observed that those using internet for more than 2 h a day were more addicted and over users [ 85 (19.81%) and 188 (43.82%), respectively] as compared to those using internet for less than 2 h a day [ 63 (12%) and 224 (42.67%), respectively] and this association was found significant. A total of 437 (45.81%) subjects reported insomnia among whom 107 ((24.49%) were internet addicts and 241 (55.15%) were over users whereas those subjects without insomnia comprised only 47 (7.93%) addicts and 171 (33.08%) over users. This association was again statistically significant. Similar results were noted with regard to the presence of depression. Depression was reported in 421 (44.13%) subjects including 113 (26.84%) internet addicts and 225 (53.44%) over users. Among those subjects without depression number of internet addicts and over users was 35 (6.58%) and 187 (34.96%), respectively. This observation was statistically significant.

On the application of OR considering internet usage as exposure, it was observed that chances of insomnia were more than five times on the internet over users as compared to average users [OR = 5.62 (4.20 to 7.53)]. Similarly, the estimated risk of PHQ ≥10 was observed more than five times on the internet over users as compared to average users. [OR = 5.70 (4.25 to 7.67]) [ Table 4 ].

The present study is an attempt to understand the pattern of internet use and the prevalence of internet addiction in youth college students. The mean age of the study population was 23.8 years.

Our study showed 15.5% of students with internet addiction. Wide variations ranging from 1.6% to 18% in the prevalence of internet addiction among adolescents have been reported.[ 4 ]

Prevalence of PIU (problematic internet use) among adolescents in a multicentric study in Europe was reported ranging from 1.2% to 11.8%.[ 5 ]

Another study on Indian adolescents reported the prevalence of possible addicts and addicts as 24.8% and 0.7%, respectively.[ 7 ] Similarly Kawabe et al .[ 17 ] in his study among 853 adolescents in Japan determined the prevalence of internet addiction using IAT. The prevalence of possible addicts and addicts was 21.7% and 2.0%, respectively.

In the present study boys were more internet addicts and over user than the girls. Similar observations have been made in several other studies in the past.[ 18 ] Since boys are given more liberty in our society and have more frequent access to use the internet in private than the girls predisposing them to become an addict and over the user. Studies have also shown that boys tend to play more online games and surf adult sites more often than girls.[ 19 ] Male also tend to use more addictive substances than female and it has also been reported in a meta-analysis of internet addiction that a person with a history of addiction to other substances is at higher risk of internet addiction.[ 20 ]

Internet addiction and overuse were more prevalent in postgraduate students than undergraduates. Kwabe et al .[ 17 ] has also reported that the number of students with internet addiction increases as their grades increase. Likewise, XinM.[ 21 ] in his study of 6468 Chinese adolescents also observed more internet addiction among older grade students. It is possible that the study course in PG is more demanding to access the internet and the affordability in this group to bear the expenses of the internet is much stronger than UG. It was also evident in general that educational activity was the most commonly cited purpose for internet use.

The workplace was the most preferred area for internet use among addicts. Goel et al .[ 7 ] in his study has also yielded similar results. Lesser restriction, a company of colleagues, and accessibility to free internet may have been the possible reason for this observation.

Alcohol consumption and smoking were significantly associated with internet addiction in the present study. Several other studies in the past have made similar observations where pathological internet use (PIU) or internet addiction was possibly associated with alcohol and smocking.[ 22 ]

Sung et al .[ 23 ] in his analysis of a large study sample of adolescents established a positive association of internet addiction with alcohol and smoking. Neuropsychological explanation proposes that nicotine and alcohol shares a common reward pathway.[ 24 ] which may also include the nature of internet usage as observed in many studies for e.g. striatal activation in online games when confronted with cues from their favorite games.[ 25 ] Studies have also suggested that adolescents with internet addiction may have personalities vulnerable to any other addiction and hence are at increased risk of substance abuse.[ 26 ]

In this study mean daily time spent on internet use was positively correlated with internet addiction. In a review of research on internet addiction, people at risk of internet addiction were reported to have spent significantly more time online.[ 27 ] In another study by Kuss[ 19 ] daily use of the internet and increased time online was positively correlated with internet addiction.

This study revealed a strong positive association between internet addiction and insomnia. Similar results were also established by Bhandari et al .[ 28 ] in his study of 984 undergraduate students, who reported 35.4% of the study sample having poor sleep quality and internet addiction as well. Cheung[ 29 ] in his study of 719 Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong observed high comorbidity between internet addiction and insomnia; 51.7% of students among internet addicts were insomniacs.

Association between internet addiction and depression in this study corresponds to another study among university students in Turkey by Orsala et al .[ 30 ] who reported an alarming association between internet addiction and depression. A high score of depression has also been reported in a study among Indian adolescents with internet addiction.[ 7 31 32 ] In an article on association between internet addiction and depression, the authors after taking into account several studies proposed four models of such association including escape model, bidirectional model, negative consequence model, and shared mechanism model. Grossly the association between internet addiction and psychological problems including depression are reported to have an interdependent relationship. Depression may lead to internet addiction and vice versa. Internet use in this population serves as a remedy to overcome their problems and negative perception about the situation. Such use over a period of time becomes a habit and eventually addiction, as some positive emotions like happiness and excitement are felt while being on the internet. When internet addict does not use the internet, negative emotions flare up and can only be replaced by positive emotions by using the internet.[ 8 ]

The association between internet addiction, insomnia, and depression was explored in a study that observed that internet addiction and sleep quality independently mediated 16.5% and 30.9% indirect effect of each other on depression.[ 28 ]

Internet addiction among youth has become increasingly a great concern. Various parameters including gender, time spent on the internet, graduation level, place of internet use, smoking, and alcohol have been associated with internet addiction. In addition, insomnia and depression are more common in internet addicts and may have a bidirectional relationship.

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Internet addiction among college students: Some causes and effects

• Published: 27 March 2019
• Volume 24 , pages 2863–2885, ( 2019 )

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• Meltem Huri Baturay   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2402-6275 1   na1 &
• Sacip Toker 2   na1  

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Internet addiction among college students in terms of causes and effects are investigated. Correlation study method is utilized; structural equation modelling is applied to analyze the data. There are fifteen hypotheses generated for the model. The data is collected via numerous instruments proven as reliable and valid by the previous studies. There are 159 undergraduate students as participants of the study. Antecedent variables are game addiction, bad relationships with friends, family and professors, neglecting daily chores, hindrance of sleep pattern, use internet for researching, weekly internet use hours, leisure time activities, reading and playing computer games. Consequence variables are self-esteem, self-confidence, social self-efficacy, loneliness, and academic self-efficacy. The results indicates that game addiction, neglecting daily chores, bad relationships with professors are significantly associated with internet addiction. Internet addiction decreases one’s self-esteem, self-confidence, social self-efficacy, academic self-efficacy and triggers loneliness. Parents, professors and educational institutions may be illuminated about prevention or monitoring of internet addiction. The current study investigates Internet addiction with respect to its implications for social behavioral, and psychological phenomenon but not in a clinical sense. Hence, studies on Internet addiction merely concentrate on antecedents and features that may cause more addiction; however, both antecedents and consequences are not examined. The value of the current study is to provide more systematic, comprehensive, and theory-based empirical causations via structural equation models. The model may help to diagnose Internet Addiction and illuminate college students its potential harmful socio-psychological consequences.

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Baturay, M.H., Toker, S. Internet addiction among college students: Some causes and effects. Educ Inf Technol 24 , 2863–2885 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-019-09894-3

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Relationship between adolescent internet addiction and adolescent non-suicidal self-injury: a moderated mediation model.

• 1 Nursing Department, Affiliated WuTaiShan Hospital of Medical College of Yangzhou University, Yang Zhou, China
• 2 School of Food Science and Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yang Zhou, China

Background: Both Internet addiction (IA) and non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) are major public health concerns among adolescents, association between internet addiction and non-suicidal self-injury have been observed among adolescents. However, it is unclear how, and under what conditions, internet addiction relates to non-suicidal self-injury. According to our hypothesis, there is a positive relationship between IA and NSSI among Chinese adolescents, but this relationship is affected by the mediating role of loneliness and the moderating role of cognitive reappraisal.

Method: A cross-sectional survey was conducted on 1046 Chinese adolescents from 3 middle schools. Measurements: Adolescent Self-Harm Scale; Young’s Internet Addiction Test (IAT); University of California at Los Angels (UCLA) Loneliness Scale; Emotional Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ), They were asked to complete self-report questionnaires.

Results: In our sample, the detection rate of NSSI was 12.3%. IA was positively associated with NSSI, and loneliness partially mediated the association between them. In addition, cognitive reappraisal moderated the first half path of the mediation model. Specifically, the higher the level of cognitive reappraisal, the weaker the positive effect of IA on NSSI through loneliness.

Conclusion: Interventions targeted to reduce loneliness and increase cognitive reappraisal strategies may reduce the risk of NSSI in adolescents with Internet addiction.

1 Introduction

Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) refers to behavior that causes damage to the surface of the body repeatedly in order to achieve a certain purpose without the explicit intention of suicide ( 1 ). The results of epidemiological investigation showed that NSSI behavior occurs in individuals of all age groups, with adolescents being the group with the highest frequency of occurrence ( 2 ). NSSI has become an important public health issue that significantly affects the health of adolescents globally ( 3 ). Currently, the detection rate of NSSI in China is showing a gradual upward trend. A meta-analysis of the prevalence of NSSI among adolescents in mainland China showed that the total detection rate of NSSI was 27.4% ( 4 ). This issue not only causes significant physiological and psychological harm to adolescents but also increases the risk of future suicide among individuals who engage in self-injury ( 5 ). Given the high prevalence and serious consequences of NSSI, further understanding the influencing factors and underlying mechanisms of NSSI in adolescents is necessary.

With the rapid development of the Internet, adolescents now view it as a tool that provides various opportunities for communication, education, and entertainment ( 6 ). The Internet penetration rate among minors reached 94.9% by the end of 2020, according to the data released by the China Internet Network Information Center (2021). During the COVID-19 pandemic, the Internet has become an indispensable part of adolescents’ lives, entertainment, and learning. However, while the Internet meets their increasing online entertainment and social needs, the Internet addiction (IA) is also becoming increasingly prominent ( 7 ). It is important to note that currently (2024), Internet addiction is yet to be recognized by the World Health Organization or the American Psychiatric Association as an addiction or any other disease class ( 8 ). The latest version of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) includes only gaming disorder ( 9 ). However, the term has become so well-established in specialist language that it is commonly used in literature. In this paper, too, we will be using the term “Internet addiction” as a generic, non-clinical term to refer to various disorders associated with problematic Internet use. Problematic Internet use (PIU) is an umbrella construct that refers to a wide range of online behaviors (shopping, pornography viewing, social networking, cyberbullying, “cyberchondria”) that can become uncontrolled and engender negative consequences (social, occupational, familial, educational), and associated with functional impairment in a subgroup of vulnerable users ( 10 , 11 ). PIU and IA are often used as synonyms ( 12 ). IA or PIU not only affects the development of adolescents’ physical health, but also endangers their mental health ( 13 ), such as insomnia, depression, anxiety. Recent studies have focused on the association of IA with NSSI ( 12 ). A European study reported that PIU among adolescents was significantly associated with self-harming/suicidal behavior ( 14 ). Empirical evidence indicated that negative emotions and inappropriate coping strategies are characteristics of IA ( 15 ) and Nock et al. ( 16 ) proposed that bad emotions and cognition combined with inappropriate coping strategies could lead to NSSI. In addition, Pan ( 17 ) showed that adolescents with IA may have neuropsychological defects, and they likely show a tendency to make risky decisions, which leads to individuals with IA adopting limited and extreme ways to cope with maladjustment or stressful events, ultimately resulting in the occurrence of NSSI. The Internet also provides convenient access to obtain information related to NSSI, promoting the occurrence of NSSI ( 18 ). According to a cross-sectional investigation in China, IA and suspicious IA behavior are independent risk factors for NSSI behavior ( 3 ). The relationship between IA and NSSI has been explored in existing research, but the results remain controversial. For example, Meszaros et al. ( 12 ) found that no direct association exists between IA and NSSI, but the relationship between the two is mediated through pathological mental disorders. Liu et al. ( 18 ) observed that after certain demographic variables were controlled, the correlation between IA and NSSI was weakened. Moreover, limited exploration has been conducted on the mechanism of action between the two. Given the harmful consequences of IA and NSSI on the healthy development of adolescents, further exploration of the mechanisms and influencing factors between these two behaviors could enhance our understanding of the trajectory and consequences of IA in adolescents.

Loneliness is a kind of negative emotion produced by an individual’s desire for interpersonal communication and intimate relationship in the social relationship network but unable to meet it ( 19 ). Several studies have shown that IA is predictive of loneliness in adolescents ( 20 – 22 ). Yao and Zhong ( 21 ) conducted a cross-lagged analysis and found that excessive and unhealthy Internet use increases individuals’ feelings of loneliness. Zheng et al. ( 22 ) determined through a cross-sectional study that Internet addicts experience a stronger sense of loneliness than non-Internet addicts. The Internet, which ostensibly promotes interpersonal interaction, actually makes users more distant from each other and increases their feelings of loneliness, which is called the “Internet paradox” by researchers ( 23 ). Adolescents’ internet use takes away time that might be used for social interaction. However, the relationships created and maintained through the Internet are often superficial. The substitution of lower-quality relationships through the Internet for higher-quality relationships in face-to-face interactions leads to lower levels of social involvement and increased loneliness ( 24 ). Adolescence is a high-risk period for loneliness, and loneliness is the most common of health risk behaviors among adolescents ( 25 ). Ma et al. ( 3 ) emphasized that high loneliness and low emotional management in adolescents are independent risk factors for NSSI.

The experiential avoidance model (EAM) of NSSI supposes that when an individual encounters an external stimulus that triggers the negative emotional response, the interaction between certain characteristics (such as high emotional intensity caused by the event and lack of emotion regulation strategies) of the individual and environment and other factors can prompt an individual to choose self-injury to avoid the negative experiences caused by negative emotions. Self-injury temporarily relieves their negative emotional experiences and further strengthens NSSI, which ultimately promotes the maintenance of NSSI ( 26 ). From this perspective, negative emotions are not only the result of external stimuli but also a contributing factor to hazardous behavior, which is the intermediary variable between external stimuli and behavioral consequences. On the basis of EAM, we speculate that adolescents in the period of drastic physical and mental changes with prominent rebellious psychology are prone to negative emotional experiences, such as loneliness, under the stimulation of IA. To avoid this negative emotional experience (loneliness), self-harming behavior is adopted, that is, loneliness may play a mediating role in the relationship between IA and NSSI.

Lack of effective emotion regulation strategies is one of the important factors in the development of NSSI ( 27 ). According to the model of emotion regulation process proposed by Gross ( 28 ), emotion regulation is developed in the process of emotion occurrence and development. At different stages of emotion development, there are different emotion regulation strategies. Cognitive reappraisal and expression suppression are the two most representative emotion regulation strategies ( 28 ). Both emotional regulation strategies were closely related to the occurrence and development of NSSI ( 29 ). Cognitive reappraisal is a positive emotion regulation strategy that generally occurs before the emotional response ( 28 ), that is, by changing the cognition and understanding of emotional events (e.g. interpreting a remark as benign/neutral instead of insulting/personal), individuals reduce the negative emotions associated with situations to reduce their negative emotions and psychological pain ( 30 ). It belongs to antecedent-focused emotion regulation strategy. Cognitive reappraisal strategies could help individuals understand the events that cause negative emotions in a positive way to reduce the experience of negative emotions and the expression of negative behaviors (e.g., self-harm) ( 31 , 32 ). Evidence suggested that cognitive reappraisal played a significant protective role in self-harm because individuals who employ cognitive reappraisal could effectively reduce the risk and severity of self-injury ( 31 , 33 ). A 3-year longitudinal study found that cognitive reappraisal was still significantly negatively associated with NSSI while controlling for negative life events, psychological stress, and other ways of emotional regulation ( 34 ). However, expression suppression, a response-focused emotion regulation strategy, generally occurs after emotions have been formed or the emotional response is activated. It suppresses individuals’ emotional expression by mobilizing their self-control ability (e.g. when someone steps on your foot and he doesn’t apologize, you try to control your anger even though you are angry). Although expression suppression could reduce individuals’ emotional expression, it does not reduce the individuals’ psychological experience of emotion ( 35 ). It is a significant positive predictor of adolescent NSSI behavior ( 36 ).

Therefore, cognitive reappraisal may weaken the association between IA (emotional situation) and loneliness (negative emotional response to the situation) when a situation may cause emotional fluctuations of individuals (IA). That is, individuals with high levels of cognitive reappraisal may adjust their cognition and understanding of the current situation to change the consequent negative emotional (loneliness) effect and increase the experience and expression of positive emotions, thereby reducing the occurrence of NSSI. When the emotional response is activated, individuals try to suppress the negative emotion using expressive suppression. However, this inhibition may paradoxically promote the lingering and accumulation of negative emotions, which exacerbates negative psychological experiences and thus increases the risk of NSSI.

The cognitive-emotional model of NSSI ( 1 ) further supports the role of emotion regulation played by cognitive reappraisal in the NSSI. This model proposes that emotion and cognition can work in concert to govern NSSI. Cognitive reappraisal, as an adaptive emotion regulation strategy, changes the trajectory of emotional responses by reinterpreting emotional events, which may weaken the association between a perceived emotionally volatile situation and a person’ s emotional response to it, ultimately reducing self-harming behaviors.

On the basis this model, Gu et al. ( 33 ) found that the direct impact of harsh parenting on adolescents’ self-injurious behavior and the indirect impact of alienation are moderated by cognitive reappraisal. In other words, adolescents with high cognitive reappraisal level have lower feelings of helplessness, loneliness, and other alienation even though they are subjected to high levels of harsh parenting. They are less likely to have self-harming behaviors. Another related study by Gu et al. ( 37 ) showed that the indirect effect of self-criticism on NSSI through psychological pain is moderated by cognitive reassessment, which can weaken the indirect effect of self-criticism on NSSI.

Based on the above theoretical model and previous research results, cognitive reappraisal generally occurs in the early stage of emotion generation, and has a significant easing effect on negative emotions caused by emotional situations. We supposed that cognitive reappraisal should be able to moderate the mediating (loneliness) process by weakening the relationship between IA and loneliness, namely, the first paragraph of the mediation pathway.

Based on these findings, we hypothesized the following:

H1. Adolescent IA is positively associated with NSSI.

H2. Loneliness will mediate the relationship between IA and NSSI.

H3. The mediating role of loneliness between IA and NSSI will be moderated by cognitive reappraisal. Specifically, cognitive reappraisal negatively moderates the first half of the mediating model ( Figure 1 ).

Figure 1 A moderated mediation model of Internet Addiction (IA), Loneliness, Cognitive Reappraisal, and Non-Suicidal Self-Injury (NSSI).

The findings of this study will contribute to understanding the relationships between IA, loneliness, cognitive reappraisal, and NSSI. This understanding could help in timely interventions to prevent further negative behaviors among adolescents. At the same time, it would provide ideas for formulating intervention strategies to reduce NSSI behavior, which in turn would decrease the occurrence of negative events and help adolescents grow up healthily.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 participants.

In this study, 1118 students from 3 middle schools in Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province were investigated using a convenience sampling method. The three secondary schools include a general middle school, a general high school, and a vocational high school (vocational high school is a secondary school that combines ordinary high school education with vocational education. It not only provides students with general high school education but also implements vocational knowledge and skill education in accordance with the requirements of vocational positions).

2.2 Procedures

First, the researchers involved in the study were trained uniformly. In the selected secondary schools, group testing was conducted on a class basis. Prior to data collection, students and their parents were invited to attend a parent-teacher conference where the researchers would explain the purpose, method, and significance of this study. Then, the researchers would ask students and their parents about their willingness to participate in the study and inform them that they could voluntarily choose whether to take part in this study or not. After the permission of students and their parents, they signed written informed consent. Secondly, under the supervision and guidance of trained researchers, students filled out self-reported questionnaires on demographics, IA, loneliness, cognitive reappraisal, and NSSI in an organized classroom setting, and students were told that the questionnaire was anonymous. Finally, after students completed the questionnaire, the researchers collected the questionnaire on the spot. The questionnaires took about 20 minutes to complete. No reward or compensation was given. Seventy two of these participants were excluded from the sample because they showed an obvious pattern of response (e.g., selecting “1” for all items). The final valid questionnaires were 1046.

2.3 Measure

2.3.1 non-suicidal self-injury.

NSSI was assessed using the Adolescent Self-Harm Scale, which was developed by Zheng ( 38 ) and revised by Feng ( 39 ). The scale measures the frequency and severity of 18 kinds of NSSI, such as cutting, burning, stabbing, and rope wound, in the past year. Participants rated how often these items occurred on a 0–3 scale (0 = never, 1 time = 1, 2–4 times = 2, 5 or more times = 3). At the same time, they rated the severity with which these items occurred on a 0–4 scale (0 = none, mild = 1, moderate = 2, severe = 3, extremely severe = 4). The level of NSSI was assessed using the composite score, which was calculated by multiplying the frequency of self-harming incidents with the severity of physical harm. A higher score indicated a more severe level of NSSI. In this study, Cronbach’s α for this scale was 0.754.

2.3.2 Internet addiction

Young’s Internet Addiction Test (ITA) ( 40 ) was used to assess adolescent Internet addiction. The scale comprises 20 items using a 5–point Likert scale (1 = rarely; 2 = occasionally; 3 = frequently; 4 = often; 5 = always). The total scores ranges from 20 to 100. Three types of internet user groups were identified based on the original cutoff points proposed by Young, namely “average online users” (20–49 points), “moderate IA” (50–79 points), and “severe IA” (80–100 points). In this study, Cronbach’s α for this scale was 0.982.

2.3.3 Loneliness

The UCLA Loneliness Scale (UCLA Loneliness Scale, University of California at Los Angels) revised by Russell et al. ( 41 ) was used to assess adolescents’ loneliness. The scale comprises 20 items using a 4–point Likert scale (1 = never; 2 = rarely; 3 = often; 4 = always). Higher scores indicated higher levels of loneliness. Based on the actual scores, loneliness levels were divided accordingly. Scores below 28 indicated low levels of loneliness, scores ranging from 18 to 33 indicated mild to moderate levels of loneliness, scores between 33 and 39 indicated moderate levels of loneliness, scores from 39 to 44 indicated moderate to high levels of loneliness, and scores above 44 indicated high levels of loneliness. In the present study, Cronbach’s α for this scale was 0.959.

2.3.4 Cognitive reappraisal

Cognitive reappraisal was assessed using the cognitive reappraisal subscale of the Emotional Regulation Questionnaire ( 28 ). The scale comprises six items using a 5–point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree). Higher scores indicated higher levels of cognitive reappraisal. A Chinese version of the scale ( 42 ) was used in the present study, and Cronbach’s α for this scale was 0.943.

2.3.5 Control variables

Previous studies have shown that NSSI in adolescents is significantly correlated with gender and age ( 3 , 43 ). Hence, we included these variables as control variables in the statistical analysis.

2.4 Data analysis

The data were analyzed using the SPSS 23.0 software and PROCESS macro 3.3 ( 44 ).

First, statistical descriptions of demographic data and study variables were presented using M (means) ± SD (standard deviations), rate or component ratio. NSSI scores were performed in univariate analysis in different demographic variables, independent sample t-test or one-way ANOVA and non-parametric test (Kruskal-Wallis H test) were used according to the normal distribution and/or homogeneity of variance of the data. Pearson correlations among variables were calculated. Second, following the two preliminary data analyses, PROCESS Model 4 ( 44 ) was used to test the mediation of loneliness. The bias-corrected bootstrapping method based on 5000 samples was used to test the significance of the indirect effect, which was regarded as significant if the 95% confidence interval (CI) did not include zero. Third, the moderated mediation was analyzed using PROCESS Model 7 ( 44 ). All continuous variables were normalized, and interaction terms were calculated on the basis of these normalized scores. Finally, a simple slope analysis was used to test whether the mediation effect of loneliness differed at various levels of the moderator variable. In addition, we used the Johnson-Neyman technique to determine in which regions of cognitive reappraisal the effect of IA on loneliness is significant and non-significant.

2.5 Common method bias

This study followed a previous method proposed to regulate the deviation of common methods (such as anonymous method and reverse scoring) to control the testing process ( 45 ). The common method bias was tested by Harman’s single-factor test. The results showed that 13 factors had feature roots greater than 1, and the explanation rate of the first common factor was 30.55%, which was less than the critical standard of 40% ( 46 ). Hence, no serious common method bias occurred in this study.

3.1 Descriptive analysis

The demographic data of 1046 participants were displayed in Tables 1 , 2 . The participants ranged in age from 12 to 18 years (M = 15.69, SD = 1.594), of whom 57.6% (n = 603) were male. The proportion of students in grades 7–9 was 10.8% (n = 113), 15.7% (n = 164), and 12.8% (n = 134), respectively. The proportion of students in general high schools was 13.9% (n = 145), 9.1% (n = 95), and 7.8% (n = 82), while the proportion of students in vocational high schools was 10.2% (n = 107), 10.3% (n = 108), and 9.4% (n = 98). Of the participants, 49% (n = 513) were single child family, and 79.9% (n = 836) reported that their place of residence was urban, 54.4% (n = 569) of families are nuclear families, 71.7% (n = 750) of the participants self-perceived the family atmosphere as good, and 49.24% of the participants considered their family economic conditions to be average.

Table 1 Demographicl Information of samples (n=1046).

Table 2 Demographicl Information of samples (n=1046).

In terms of the Adolescent Self-Harm Scale, the total score of 1,046 participants was 1.89 ± 7.515. 12.3% of participants (n = 129) reported at least one incidence of NSSI in the previous 12 months.

3.2 Preliminary analyses

Table 3 indicates the descriptive statistics of related variables, including Mean ( M ), standard deviations ( SD ), and the bivariate correlation analysis between above variables. After controlling for two general demographic variables, gender and age, the results of correlation analysis showed that IA, loneliness and NSSI were significantly positively correlated with each other ( r = 0.290 ∼ 0.476, p < 0. 01), and cognitive reappraisal was negatively correlated with these variables (| r | = 0. 195 ∼ 0. 494, p < 0. 01). The prima facie evidence for the assumed moderated mediation model was offered by the findings of the above correlation analysis.

Table 3 Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis of variables.

3.3 Tests of mediating effect of loneliness

According to Hayes ( 44 ), we tested the mediating effect of loneliness on IA and NSSI. The mediating role of loneliness was upheld. After controlling for gender and age, IA positively affected NSSI, c = 0.171, p < 0.001; then, IA and loneliness entered the regression equation at the same time, the result showed that IA positively affected loneliness, a = 0.245, p < 0.001; loneliness positively affected NSSI, B= 0.122, p < 0.001; IA positively affected NSSI, c’ = 0.141, p < 0.001 (see Table 4 for details). Finally, the bias corrected percentile Bootstrap method test showed that loneliness play a significant mediated role between IA and NSSI, ab = 0.030, SE = 0.005, and 95% CI = [0.021, 0.040] (see Table 5 for details). Thus, loneliness partially mediated the relationship between IA and NSSI. The mediation effect accounts for 18% of the total effect. Therefore, Hypotheses 1 and 2 were validated.

Table 4 The moderated-mediating effect of IA on NSSI.

Table 5 The Bootstrapping analysis of the mediating effects.

3.4 Test of moderated mediation model effect

Model 7 of PROCESS macro 3.3 was used to test the moderating effect of cognitive reappraisal. The results are shown in Table 4 , IA had a positive predictive effect on loneliness( β = 0.152, p < 0.001), Cognitive reappraisal has a negative predictive effect on loneliness ( β = -0.565, p < 0.001). The interaction between Internet addiction and cognitive reappraisal significantly predicted loneliness ( β = -0.010, p < 0.001), and the index of the moderated mediation was -0.0012, SE = 0.0003, 95% CI = [-0.0018, -0.0007], suggesting cognitive reappraisal moderated the association between IA and loneliness.

To clarify the essence of the interaction effect between IA and loneliness, we divided cognitive reappraisal into high and low groups in accordance with the average plus or minus an SD and used a simple slope analysis to explore the role of cognitive reappraisal in the relationship between IA and loneliness. The specific moderating effect is shown in Figure 2 . When the level of cognitive reappraisal was low, IA had a significant positive predictive effect on loneliness (Bsimple = 0.267, SE = 0. 027, p < 0. 001, 95% CI = [0.214, 0.319]). However, when the level of cognitive reappraisal was high, IA had no significant predictive effect on loneliness (Bsimple = 0.038, SE = 0. 038, p = 0.319, 95% CI = [−0.037, 0.113]). The indirect effect of loneliness on adolescents with low cognitive reappraisal level (M − 1SD) was significant (index = 0.033, Boot SE = 0.005, 95% CI = [0.023, 0.044]), whereas the indirect effect on adolescents with high cognitive reappraisal level (M + 1SD) was in significant (index = 0.005, Boot SE = 0.005, 95% CI = [−0.004, 0.014]), as shown in Table 6 . Thus, we concluded that the mediating effect of loneliness decreased significantly with the increasing level of cognitive reappraisal, which plays a buffering role in the indirect effects of IA on NSSI.

Figure 2 Cognitve reappraisal as a moderator on the relationship between internet addiction and loneliness. IA, Internet addiction.

Table 6 Conditional indirect effect of cognitive reappraisal when loneliness mediated between IA and NSSI.

Furthermore, we used the Johnson-Neyman technique to identify the regions in the range of the moderator variable where the effect of the IA on loneliness is statistically significant and not significant ( 47 , 48 ). The results may help provide more preventive interventions and pointed suggestions. As shown in Figure 3 , the positive correlation between IA and loneliness was significant when the cognitive reappraisal value was less than 32, and the association was relatively stronger for adolescents who had lower cognitive reappraisal. However, when the cognitive reappraisal value was higher than 32, the effect of IA on loneliness was not significant.

Figure 3 The conditional effect of IA on Loneliness as linear function of cognitive reappraisal. IA, Internet addiction; CI, 95% confidence interval; LL, low limit; UL, upper limit.

Overall, these results suggested that cognitive reappraisal moderated the relationship between IA and NSSI via loneliness. Hypothesis 3 was supported.

4 Discussion

IA and NSSI are serious public health problems that endanger the physical and mental health of adolescents. In this study, the moderating mediation model was used to reveal the relationship between IA and NSSI and to clarify the underlying predictive mechanism of IA to NSSI. First, it illustrated how IA affects NSSI, including its direct effects and the mediating role of loneliness. Second, it analyzed “how it works further.” In other words, the mediating effect of loneliness was distinguished as being influenced by different levels of cognitive reappraisal.

According to our survey, the detection rate of NSSI among participants was 10.6%, which was lower than the results of previous studies on middle school students ( 49 ), but was still within the range of detection rates of 5.4% – 23.2% obtained by domestic studies ( 50 ). The variation was probably caused by different researchers’ criteria for defining NSSI and the different measurement tools used in studies. Nevertheless, these findings reminded us that NSSI cannot be ignored among middle school students.

In our study, the results showed a significant positive correlation between IA and NSSI. Specifically, the higher the level of IA, the higher the likelihood of NSSI, which supported Hypothesis 1. These results were consistent with the results of most previous studies ( 51 , 52 ).

As for the reasons why IA affects NSSI, Liu et al. ( 18 ) believed that the deindividuation caused by IA affected adolescents’ normal social function and reduced their emotions such as alertness and fear. They were prone to impulse control disorder, which is characterized by repetitive and uncontrollable actions harmful to oneself or others. This phenomenon leads to impulsive behaviors, such as self-injury. The Internet provides a way for NSSI; with the increasing use of the Internet in our daily lives, more interactive online activities provide adolescents with social networking opportunities that are not restricted by traditional physical boundaries or monitored by adults. Adolescents addicted to the Internet likely obtain information about NSSI through relevant websites and forums, thus promoting the occurrence of NSSI ( 18 ). In addition, adolescents with IA tend to show decreased confidence and poor ability to resist pressure in the face of frustration and bad emotions ( 53 ). These characteristics provide a prerequisite for adolescents to develop NSSI behaviors ( 53 ). Therefore, we should take corresponding measures to protect teenagers against IA. Effective control of adolescents’ Internet use may reduce the risk of NSSI and promote the healthy development of adolescents. For example, exercise intervention, several studies have pointed out that moderate-intensity physical exercise ( 54 ) and high-intensity interval exercise ( 55 ) can relieve the symptoms of IA. The forms of movement mainly include a single sports form and “sports +” two types. The single sports form mainly includes three types: Group confrontation sports (e.g., football and basketball) ( 56 , 57 ); Aerobic exercise (e.g., Tai Chi) ( 58 ); Leisure sports (e.g., sports games, outward bound training) ( 59 ). The intervention form of “sports +” mainly includes the combination of sports and psychological counseling ( 60 ).

In addition to the direct effect of IA on NSSI, this study also found that IA can indirectly affect adolescents’ NSSI through loneliness. Some adolescents with IA do not directly exhibit NSSI, but rather a sense of loneliness that is associated with an increased risk of NSSI. Hypothesis 2 was verified. Therefore, the increase in loneliness could be used as a mechanism to explain the relationship between IA and NSSI in adolescents. Adolescents with IA indulge in the virtual world for a long time, which greatly reduces their face-to-face social time with their families or peers. However, most network communications have the characteristics of surface and weak connection strength ( 61 ). Weak social bonds online are not enough to replace offline socializing, nor can they provide adequate emotional support, leading to a rising sense of loneliness among them ( 62 ). In China, students’ academic performance is highly valued. Students with high academic achievement are often regarded as successful, so they are more likely to be respected by their peers and have a higher status in their peers; by contrast, students with poor academic performance tend to have a certain disadvantage in peer relationships ( 63 ) and have a lower social status in their peers ( 64 ). Some studies have shown that many students with IA have low academic achievement. In real life, they tend to experience culturally defined failures ( 65 ), which makes them likely feel inadequate social support ( 12 ) and leads to increased loneliness. Low academic achievement also tends to make them feel inferior ( 66 ), which increases the tendency of social avoidance in the real society ( 67 ) and the negativity toward social relations ( 20 ). Consequently, they hardly achieve satisfaction in normal social interactions, which aggravates their loneliness ( 20 ).

According to the two-dimensional four-function model proposed by Nock ( 16 ), self-negative reinforcement is the most common function of NSSI, that is, NSSI is the management and regulation of negative emotions (such as loneliness) to obtain emotional relief and balance. Applied to our study, NSSI is a form of management and regulation of negative emotions such as loneliness, wherein loneliness caused by IA can in turn lead to NSSI as a means to reduce emotional pain. In addition, adolescents with a strong sense of loneliness are usually accompanied with low self-esteem and low self-evaluation and are prone to choosing extreme ways to cope with things (such as self-injurious behavior) ( 68 ). Therefore, interventions that focus on alleviating loneliness in adolescents may be a potential strategy for preventing NSSI. Peer support is one of the main sources of social support for adolescents. Several studies have shown that friendship quality is strongly associated with loneliness in adolescents ( 69 ). Zhou ( 70 ) conducted focused group counseling for junior middle school students with the theme of “Friendship Quality”, which improved the quality of friendship among them and alleviated their loneliness. Therefore, schools should not only pay attention to students’ academic achievements, but also pay attention to the cultivation of good peer relationships among classmates. Teachers should establish good teacher-student relationship with teenagers and improve their own teacher justice quality. Teachers’ justice quality includes treating students equally, treating them equally, teaching them according to their aptitude, and rationally distributing the educational resources they have in specific educational activities ( 71 ). Research has shown that teacher justice can help students get more teacher support and peer support, which can reduce adolescents’ experience of loneliness and ultimately avoid the occurrence of self-harming behaviors ( 72 ). Family is a place for teenagers to relax and relax. Parents could improve co-parenting awareness and skills to reduce parental conflict, thereby reducing loneliness and depression symptoms, and preventing NSSI in adolescents ( 73 ).

This study confirmed that cognitive reappraisal moderated the indirect role of loneliness in the association of IA and NSSI. Its regulatory effect occurred in the first half of the mediation pathway.

Specifically, at a low cognitive reappraisal level (cognitive reappraisal value was less than 32), the positive effect of IA on loneliness was enhanced; at a high cognitive reappraisal level, IA and loneliness were uncorrelated. In other words, a higher level of cognitive reappraisal could serve as a protective factor for NSSI, buffering the effect of IA on NSSI through loneliness. This finding is consistent with that of previous research ( 33 ), which showed that in the context of emotional stimuli, adolescents with low cognitive reappraisal ability were likely to experience negative emotions and were inclined to relieving these negative emotions through self-injury.

Gross on the basis of the emotional regulation process model, proposed that cognitive reappraisal is a process in which individuals reduce their emotional responses by changing their understanding of emotional events. The study has shown that adolescents with high cognitive reappraisal have good interpersonal functioning and social adjustment ( 28 ).

They can review the relationship between the Internet and social satisfaction and then change their cognition that online virtual socialization is the main social way to meet their social needs, properly use Internet tools to maintain and expand social relations in reality, diversify their social avenues, take the initiative to increase opportunities for face-to-face communication and interaction, and gain genuine emotional support. In this way, the alienation of interpersonal relationship caused by IA and the loneliness caused by the reduction in social reality can be alleviated.

Fritz ( 74 ) argued that the frequent use of cognitive reappraisal strategies can help people not only identify the positive aspects of stressors but also show other forms of positive thinking. Long-term addiction to the Internet has a great impact on teenagers’ studies, who tend to have low academic achievement. On the contrary, adolescents who are good at applying cognitive reappraisal as an emotion regulation strategy may reinterpret low academic achievement (possible emotional stimulation situations) and improve their self-awareness in interpersonal communication ( 75 ). Instead of associating low academic achievement with low social status among peers and low self-esteem, they may take the initiative to increase communication with peers and seek possible social support systems. This approach helps them gain positive feedback and a sense of belonging, which reduces their loneliness, ultimately reducing the probability of NSSI occurring. Therefore, improving cognitive reappraisal skills in adolescents may be particularly useful for the treatment of NSSI ( 34 ). For example, Bentley et al. ( 76 ) found that a cognitive reappraisal intervention effectively reduced the urges and acts of NSSI.

5 Limitations

This study exhibits several limitations. First, the conclusions of this research were based on the analysis of data, and the collection of data was based on self-report. Therefore, the results might be limited by social desirability and recall bias. In the future, the impact of IA on NSSI could be further explored by integrating various data collection approaches. Second, this research adopted a cross-sectional research design. The tracking research method could be applied in the future to reveal the relationship between variables in depth. In addition, this research found that loneliness played a partial mediating role in the relationship between IA and NSSI. There may be other mediating variables in the relationship between the two, so the comprehensive influence of multiple mediating variables could be considered in the future. Third, in this study, only “gender and age” were used as control variables, and other potential confounders such as school nature, socioeconomic status, and family dynamics were not considered. In future studies, we will combine existing literature and research results, and fully consider potential confounding factors that may exist to strengthen the validity of the study. Lastly, the participants in this study were from Yangzhou, China; whether our findings could be generalized to adolescents from other regions of China or other cultures needs to be tested in the future.

6 Conclusion

This research identified a significant moderated mediation model through cross-sectional design that explained the effect of IA on NSSI in adolescents. Our findings suggest that IA is associated with an increased risk for adolescents’ NSSI. Schools, families and society should pay more attention to the rational use of the Internet for adolescents. Secondly, this study found that loneliness is an important “bridge” linking IA to NSSI. Therefore, interventions that focus on alleviating loneliness in adolescents may be a potential strategy for preventing NSSI. Finally, the tests of our moderated mediation model contribute to the literature by providing evidence in support of the emotional regulation process model and the cognitive emotional model of NSSI. We found that cognitive reappraisal, as an individual difference, could explain the heterogeneity of the relationship between IA and NSS in adolescents. Thus, improving adolescents’ skills in cognitive reappraisal may be particularly useful in the treatment of NSSI ( 34 ). This model provides new information on the relationship between IA and NSSI in adolescents and offers potential ways to prevent the harmful consequences of IA on adolescents.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics statement

The studies involving humans were approved by Affiliated WuTaiShan Hospital of Medical College of Yangzhou University before the survey (Reference number: WTSLL20222009). The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent for participation in this study was provided by the participants’ legal guardians/next of kin.

Author contributions

NL: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. HL: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Project administration. LW: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Investigation, Data curation. JY: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Investigation, Data curation. AP: Writing – review & editing, Project administration, Investigation, Data curation.

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank all of the school partners, many nursing peers who participated in this research for providing valuable time and contributions to this research and adolescents who participated in our study.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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65. Yee N. Motivations for play in online games. Cyberpsychology Behav impact Internet multimedia virtual reality Behav Soc . (2006) 9:772–5. doi: 10.1089/cpb.2006.9.772

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68. Huang SN, Zhang Y, Kong J, Zhang WJ, Hu WS, Wang X. Analysis of non-suicidal self-injury behavior in adolescents with mental disorders and its influencing factors. South China J Prev Med . (2021) 47:1564–7. doi: 10.12183/j.scjpm.2021.1564

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Keywords: IA: internet addiction, NSSI: non-suicidal self-injury, loneliness, cognitive reappraisal, adolescent

Citation: Liu N, Li H, Wang L, Yin J and Peng A (2024) Relationship between adolescent internet addiction and adolescent non-suicidal self-injury: a moderated mediation model. Front. Psychiatry 15:1413167. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1413167

Received: 06 April 2024; Accepted: 05 July 2024; Published: 23 July 2024.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2024 Liu, Li, Wang, Yin and Peng. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Lin Wang, [email protected] ; Jiemei Yin, [email protected]

† These authors share first authorship

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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A study on Internet addiction and its relation to psychopathology and self-esteem among college students

Manish kumar.

Department of Psychiatry, Calcutta Medical College, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Anwesha Mondal

1 Department of Clinical Psychology, Institute of Psychiatry- A Center of Excellence, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Background:

Internet use is one of the most important tools of our present-day society whose impact is felt on college students such as increased use of Internet. It brings change in mood, an inability to control the amount of time spent with the Internet, withdrawal symptoms when not engaged, a diminishing social life, and adverse work or academic consequences, and it also affects self-esteem of the students.

The main objective of this study is to explore the Internet use and its relation to psychopathology and self-esteem among college students.

Methodology:

A total of 200 college students were selected from different colleges of Kolkata through random sampling. After selection of the sample, Young's Internet Addiction Scale, Symptom Checklist-90-Revised, and Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale were used to assess the Internet usage, psychopathology, and self-esteem of the college students.

Depression, anxiety, and interpersonal sensitivity were found to be correlated with Internet addiction. Along with that, low self-esteem has been found in students to be associated with possible users of Internet.

Conclusion:

Internet usage has been found to have a very strong impact on college students, especially in the areas of anxiety and depression, and at times it affected their social life and their relationship with their family.

Internet is being integrated as a part of day-to-day life because the usage of the Internet has been growing explosively worldwide. It has dramatically changed the current communication scenario, and there has been a considerable increase in the number of Internet users worldwide in the last decade. With the advancement in media and technologies, Internet has emerged as an effective tool in eliminating human geographical barriers. With the availability and mobility of new media, Internet addiction (IA) has emerged as a potential problem in young people which refers to excessive computer use that interferes with their daily life. The Internet is used to facilitate research and to seek information for interpersonal communication and for business transactions. On the other hand, it can be used by some to indulge in pornography, excessive gaming, chatting for long hours, and even gambling. There have been growing concerns worldwide for what has been labeled as “Internet Addiction,” which was originally proposed as a disorder by Goldberg[ 1 ] Griffith considered it a subset of behavioral addiction that meets the six “core components” of addiction, i.e., salience, mood modification, tolerance, withdrawal, conflict, and relapse. Increasing research has been conducted on IA.[ 2 , 3 ] With regard to IA, it has been questioned whether people become addicted to the platform or to the content of the Internet.[ 4 ] A study suggested that Internet addicts become addicted to different aspects of online use where it is differentiated between three subtypes of Internet addicts: excessive gaming, online sexual preoccupation, and e-mailing/texting.[ 5 , 6 ] According to the study, various types of IA are cyber-sexual addiction, cyber-relationship addiction, net compulsions, information overload, and computer addiction.

Based on a growing research base, the American Psychiatric Association vision is to include Internet use disorder in the appendix of the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders[ 7 ] for the first time, acknowledging the problems arising from this type of addictive disorder. There has been an explosive growth in the use of Internet not only in India but also worldwide. Reports reveal that there were about 137 million Internet users in India in 2013 and further suggest India as the world's second largest in Internet use after China in the near future. According to the Internet and Mobile Association of India and Indian Market Research Bureau, out of 80 million active Internet users in urban India, 72% (58 million individuals) have accessed some form of social networking in 2013,[ 8 ] which is to touch around 420 million by June 2017.

The warning signs of IA include the following:

• Preoccupation with the Internet (thoughts about previous online activity or anticipation of the next online session)
• Use of the Internet in increasing amounts of time in order to achieve satisfaction
• Repeated, unsuccessful efforts to control, cut back, or stop Internet use
• Feelings of restlessness, moodiness, depression, or irritability when attempting to cut down the use of the Internet
• Online longer than originally intended
• Jeopardized or risked loss of significant relationships, job, educational, or career opportunities because of Internet use
• Lies to family members, therapists, or others to conceal the extent of involvement with the Internet
• Use of the Internet is a way to escape from problems or to relieve a dysphoric mood (e.g., feelings of hopelessness, guilt, anxiety, and depression)
• Feeling guilty and defensive about Internet use
• Feeling of euphoria while performing Internet-based activities
• Physical symptoms of IA.

Internet or computer addiction can also cause physical discomforts such as:

• Carpal tunnel syndrome (pain and numbness in hands and wrists)
• Dry eyes or strained vision
• Backaches and neck aches; severe headaches
• Sleep disturbances
• Pronounced weight gain or weight loss.

IA results in personal, family, academic, financial, and occupational problems that are characteristic of other addictions. Impairments of real-life relationships are disrupted as a result of excessive use of the Internet. IA leads to different social, psychological, and physical disorders. The worst effects of IA are anxiety, stress, and depression. Excessive use of Internet also affects the academic achievements of students. Students addicted to Internet are more involved in it than their studies, and hence they have poor academic performance.[ 9 ] This hypothesis has been confirmed by a number of studies. Many studies examined the association between psychiatric symptoms and IA in adolescents. They found that IA is associated with psychological and psychiatric symptoms such as depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem. In addition, several studies have shown links between Internet use and personality traits. They have found loneliness, shyness, loss of control, and low self-esteem to be associated with IA.

In a study[ 10 ] on young adolescents, it was found that about 74.5% were moderate (average) users and 0.7% were found to be addicts. Those with excessive use of Internet had high scores on anxiety, depression, and anxiety depression. In another study,[ 11 ] the prevalence of IA among Greek students was 4.5% and at-risk population was 66.1%. There were significant differences between the means of psychiatric symptoms in Symptom Checklist-90-Revised (SCL-90-R) subscales among addicted and nonaddicted students. Depression and anxiety appeared to have the most consistent correlation with IA. In addition, obsessive-compulsive symptoms, hostility/aggression, time in the Internet, and quarrel with parents are associated with IA. In another study by Paul et al ., 2015, on 596 students, 246 (41.3%) were mild addicts, 91 (15.2%) were moderate addicts, and 259 (43.5%) were not addicted to Internet use. There was no pattern of severe IA among the study group. Males, students of arts and engineering stream, those staying at home, no extracurricular activity involvement, time spent on Internet per day, and mode of accessing Internet were some of the factors significantly associated with IA pattern. In another study,[ 12 ] the prevalence of IA among 1100 respondents was 10.6%. People with higher scores were characterized as male, single, students, high neuroticism, life impairment due to Internet use, time for Internet use, online gaming, presence of psychiatric morbidity, recent suicidal ideation, and past suicidal attempts. Logistic regression showed that neuroticism, life impairment, and Internet use time were the three main predictors for IA. Compared to those without IA, the Internet addicts had higher rates of psychiatric morbidity (65.0%), suicidal ideation in a week (47.0%), lifetime suicidal attempts (23.1%), and suicidal attempt in a year (5.1%). In another study,[ 13 ] a significant relationship was found between IA and general psychopathology and self-esteem. The addiction status was assessed as risk of low level in 59 (31.89%) participants, high level in 27 (14.59%) participants, and none in 99 (53.51%) participants. A high positive correlation was found between Internet Addiction Scale (IAS) and SCL-90 subscales and Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES). In three different IA groups, it was found that all SCL-90 subscale averages increase and RSES subscale averages decrease as IA severity increases.

In India, use of Internet is enormous, especially in the young population. Hence, it was found necessary to study the pattern of Internet usage in young adults in Indian setting and its relationship with their mental and physical health and self-esteem. With this aim in mind, the present study has been undertaken to take a close look on this issue.

METHODOLOGY

• Sociodemographic data sheet: A self-made, semistructured, sociodemographic data sheet was prepared to collect the participant's details, details of any previous history of psychopathology, substance abuse, and details of the Internet use
• Internet Addiction Scale: The IAS[ 14 ] is a 20-item scale that measures the presence and severity of Internet dependency. This questionnaire is scored on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 to 5. The marking for this questionnaire ranges from 20 to 100, the higher the marks, the greater the dependence on the Internet
• Symptom Checklist-90-Revised: It is a multidimensional self-report symptom inventory[ 15 ] designed to measure psychopathology by quantifying nine dimensions as follows: somatization, obsession-compulsion, interpersonal sensitivity, depression, anxiety, hostility, phobic anxiety, paranoid ideation, and psychotism. In addition, there are three global indices of distress, the General Severity Index, representing the extent or depth of the present psychiatric disturbance; the Positive Symptom Total, representing the number of questions rated above 1 point; and the Positive Symptom Distress Index, representing the intensity of the symptoms. Higher scores on the SCL-90 indicate greater psychological distress. The SCL-90 was proven to hold excellent test–retest reliability, internal consistency, and concurrent validity
• Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: This scale was developed by sociologist Rosenberg[ 16 ] to measure self-esteem, which is widely used in social science research. It is a 10-item scale with items answered on a 4-point scale – from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Five of the items have positively worded statements and five have negatively worded ones. The scale measures state self-esteem by asking the respondents to reflect on their current feelings. The RSES is considered a reliable and valid quantitative tool for self-esteem assessment.

A sample of 200 students studying in various disciplines such as science, arts, and commerce were selected through random sampling from five different colleges of Kolkata.

In the initial phase of the study, a total of five colleges were selected according to the convenience of the researchers. After receiving permission from the administrative departments of respective colleges for data collection, researchers approached the participants directly during their college hours, explained the purpose and method of using the questionnaires, and also ensured the confidentiality of the data. Verbal consent was taken from the participants. Only the day scholars were included in the study. The colleges selected for collecting the data did not have free Wi-Fi services. Responses were collected from the participants having Internet connection on their android phones. First, the sociodemographic data sheet was filled up by the participants. Participants having a previous history of psychopathology and substance abuse were excluded from the study. After exclusion of the participants, the questionnaires were distributed to the included participants and after completion, they were scored and interpreted according to the tool. Confidentiality of the data has been maintained.

Sociodemographic and Internet user's characteristics

Two hundred students participated in the study. The mean age of the students was found to be 21.68 years (±2.82). Students were unmarried and were undergraduates. Majority of the students reported that they use Internet for pleasure and mainly get involved in activities of social networks and online gaming. Focusing on users' characteristics and Internet activities, it was found that the concerning age of computer use initiation was 15 years, frequency of Internet use per day in hours was 3–4 h, and frequency of Internet use per week in days was every day.

Table 1 suggests the frequency of IA on the IAS. The frequency of mild users (IAS score: 20–49) was 58 and the percentile was 29. The highest frequency and percentile found in the severe users (80–100) were 79 and 39.5, respectively. The next higher frequency found in moderate users (50–79) was 63 and the percentile was 31.5.

Frequency of Internet users

Table 2 reflects t -test results between SCL-90 and IA. The comparison of scores in all dimensions and the three global indices on SCL-90 between moderate users and severe users of Internet demonstrated that severe users of Internet had higher scores in all dimensions. Symptoms such as obsession-compulsion, interpersonal sensitivity, depression, and anxiety were associated with IA.

t -test results of psychiatric symptoms with Internet addiction

Table 3 reflects t -test results between self-esteem and IA. The comparison of scores on self-esteem between moderate users and severe users of Internet demonstrated that no significant difference was found between them.

t -test results of self-esteem with Internet addiction

Table 4 describes the regression analysis results of the association between Internet users, the ten dimensions of the SCL-90. The results indicated that students with high usage of Internet had higher level of obsession-compulsion, interpersonal sensitivity, and anxiety.

Regression analysis results: IAT score

A number of studies have been conducted across the world among adults with respect to IA. This study is a preliminary step toward understanding the extent of IA among college students in India.

The random sampling method gave the opportunity to gather information from five different colleges in Kolkata. The procedure for selecting the sample has allowed the generalization of the results to the entirety of the college population.

The Internet Addiction Test has been found to be the only validated instrument which identifies the high, low, and average users of Internet. It is found from this study that 39.5% of the students were severe users of Internet. Nearly 31.5% of the students were moderate users. A number of studies reported a higher percentage of Internet-addicted youths.[ 17 , 18 ] It is of note that 29% of the students were average users of Internet. Whether these students will actually develop an addiction is difficult to be predicted. Nevertheless, the continuous exposure to Internet and a possible susceptibility to addictive behaviors may represent a possible danger. Previous studies have found similar results concerning moderate IA.[ 19 , 20 ] Students who are found to be severe users of Internet use a maximum of 3–4 h per day and they are not able to perform their responsibilities properly such as concentration on academics and developing social isolation owing to excessive use of the Internet. Users who spend a significant amount of time online experience academic, relational, economic, and occupational problems, as well as physical disorders.

The results of the present study show that severe users of Internet have shown higher psychopathological symptoms in four dimensions such as obsessive-compulsive, interpersonal sensitivity and depression, anxiety, and global severity index than those with moderate users of Internet. This finding has been supported by other studies[ 21 ] where the association between psychiatric symptoms and IA using the SCL-90 scale had been examined and was found that there was a strong association between psychiatric symptoms and IA. Students with excessive use of Internet reported the presence of psychopathological problems such as obsessive-compulsive and depression. Anxiety and problems such as interpersonal sensitivity were supported by many studies.[ 10 , 19 , 20 ] In another study,[ 22 ] it was found that psychiatric features are associated with IA.

In the present study, no significant relationship has been found between moderate users and severe users of Internet and self-esteem. This is consistent with the result of a previous study.[ 10 ] It may be attributed to the fact which states that the participants' use of the Internet is not associated as a coping style or as a way of compensating some deficiencies, rather it makes them feel better, as it allows them to assume a different personality and social identity.

Logistic regression analysis showed that obsession -compulsion, interpersonal sensitivity, and anxiety were associated with IA. It reflects that the higher the use of Internet, the individual is more prone to develop obsessive-compulsive symptoms such as difficulty in controlling to use Internet, repetitive thoughts about using Internet, and checking the Internet repetitively. The association between obsessive-compulsive disorder and IA supports previous findings.[ 23 ] Interpersonal sensitivity and anxiety were associated with IA as well. These findings are consistent with that of other studies.[ 23 , 24 ] It indicates that individuals with high usage of Internet are prone to become more sensitive in interpersonal relationships and also become more anxious when not using the Internet. In an article, a majority of surveys conveyed the association between pathological Internet use and depression, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive symptoms.[ 19 ]

High Internet usage leads to psychological difficulties such as anxiety, depression, and loneliness. Severe users were more likely to be anxious and depressed than moderate users and low users. This study showed that severe users of Internet use the Internet more often when they are anxious and depressed. It is clear that the relation between Internet use, anxiety, and depression is affected by many variables. Severe users of Internet have also been associated with increases in impulsivity. Severe and average Internet users displayed significant difference on interpersonal relationships. Individuals with high use of Internet experience have a sense of criticism by others, shyness, and a sense of discomfort when criticized and can be easily hurt, have perceived lower social support, and found it easier to create new social relationships online. The consequence of exploring social support online often worsens their interpersonal problems in reality, accompanied by psychological problems such as anxiety symptoms. Severe users' Internet group has obsessive-compulsive symptoms more than average users' Internet group, where severe users' Internet group was found to be preoccupied with Internet, needs longer amounts of time online, makes repeated attempts to reduce Internet use, feels withdrawal when reducing Internet use, has time management issues, has environmental distress (family, school, work, and friends), and has deception around the time spent online, thus doing mood modification through Internet use.

Students are steered toward more Internet use because of many factors such as different cheap offers of Internet recharge by different telecom companies, blocks of unstructured time, newly experienced freedom from parental intervention, no monitoring of what they express online, facing a peer pressure in showing their identity, and gaining random instant popularity on social media platform. In other words, these users derive great satisfaction from Internet use and perceive it as a way of making up for their shortcomings, which, however, turns into a dependent relationship.

Psychopathologic features increase as the severity of IA increases as found in a study.[ 22 ] A causal relationship between psychiatric and psychological problems and IA needs to be further analyzed in order to determine whether Internet use causes psychiatric problems or exacerbates symptoms that already exist.

In the last one decade, the Internet has become an integral part of our life. In this article, an attempt has been made to study the severity of Internet use and its relation to psychopathology and self-esteem in college students. Individuals having high usage showed depression and anxiety. IA is also associated with obsessive-compulsive symptoms and interpersonal sensitivity. This result highlights the need for more clinical studies focusing on psychiatric or psychological symptoms.

This study has a few limitations too. No specific tool has been used to exclude any previous psychopathology apart from the information gathered through the sociodemographic data sheet. Accurate estimates of the prevalence of IA in college students are lacking. The study did not manage to clarify the causal relationship between IA and psychiatric symptoms. IA may precipitate psychiatric symptoms which may lead to IA. Another limitation of this study is it did not take into account whether psychiatric symptoms may preexist any IA and may create a vulnerability to addiction. The study did not allow us to differentiate the essential use of the Internet from its recreational use. Future studies can be implicated to analyze the results of the students according to different streams of subjects.

Financial support and sponsorship

Conflicts of interest.

There are no conflicts of interest.

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THE EFFECT OF INTERNET ADDICTION ON STUDENTS' EMOTIONAL AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

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Middle School Thesis Statement

Ai generator.

In middle school, students begin to familiarize themselves with the concept of thesis statements , laying the groundwork for more complex writing tasks in the future. Crafting a thesis statement at this level is crucial for developing strong writing skills and analytical thinking. This guide provides middle schoolers with essential examples, a step-by-step approach to writing, and helpful tips to ensure they create compelling and clear thesis statements to elevate their essays and reports.

What is a thesis statement for middle schoolers? – Definition

A thesis statement for middle schoolers is a concise sentence or two that clearly presents the main idea or argument of a piece of writing. It serves as a roadmap for readers, helping them understand what the writer intends to convey or prove. For middle school students, a thesis statement often takes a simpler form than in more advanced academic writing but remains essential for guiding the direction of their essays, reports, or projects.

What is a good thesis statement Example for Middle School?

“Despite its reputation for being an aggressive breed, with proper training and socialization, pit bulls can be loyal and gentle family pets.”

A Good thesis statement provides a clear stance on the topic (the nature of pit bulls) and gives a hint about the supporting points the essay might discuss (training and socialization). It’s straightforward and suitable for the middle school level.

100 Thesis Statement Example for Middle School

Size: 148 KB

Crafting a clear and compelling thesis statement in middle school lays the foundation for advanced essay writing in high school and beyond. These statements are simpler than their high school thesis statement counterparts but serve the crucial role of guiding the direction of an argument or analysis. Here, we provide a selection of examples tailored for the budding middle school writer.

• Recycling is vital for preserving our planet for future generations.
• School uniforms promote a sense of community among students.
• Homework should be limited to ensure students have enough time for extracurricular activities.
• Solar energy is an eco-friendly alternative that should be explored more.
• Physical education should be mandatory in every grade.
• Reading books enhances creativity more than watching TV.
• Social media platforms should have age restrictions.
• Zoos do more harm than good by imprisoning animals.
• Students should have the option to learn a musical instrument in school.
• Public libraries are essential resources for communities.
• Bullying in schools needs stricter policies and consequences.
• Technology in classrooms enhances the learning experience.
• The Harry Potter series has revolutionized children’s literature.
• Parents should limit video game hours for children.
• Field trips provide a unique and invaluable learning experience.
• Cursive writing is a skill that should still be taught in schools.
• Schools should offer more foreign language options from an early age.
• Year-round schooling is beneficial for student retention.
• Team sports teach valuable life skills like teamwork and leadership.
• The school cafeteria should prioritize healthy food options.
• Art and music classes are as essential as science and math.
• Volunteering should be encouraged in middle school.
• Outdoor learning can be a valuable addition to traditional classrooms.
• History lessons should cover diverse cultures and perspectives.
• Summer vacations are essential for students’ mental well-being.
• Pets in school can aid in stress reduction and emotional learning.
• Teachers should integrate more modern literature into the curriculum.
• Learning a second language benefits cognitive development.
• Excessive testing can put undue stress on students.
• Schools should have programs that teach financial literacy.
• Mobile phones in schools are more distracting than beneficial.
• Gardening programs teach students about sustainability and biology.
• Early bedtimes benefit students’ concentration and health.
• Schools should incorporate more hands-on experiments in science classes.
• The study of mythology offers insights into various cultures.
• Students should learn about global current events in addition to history.
• Virtual reality can revolutionize classroom learning.
• Longer recess breaks benefit students’ concentration.
• Online learning platforms are vital tools for modern education.
• Schools should encourage students to read newspapers.
• Space exploration should be a part of the school curriculum.
• Schools should host annual events celebrating cultural diversity.
• Students should be educated about internet safety.
• Math can be made fun through interactive learning tools.
• Public speaking lessons can boost students’ confidence.
• Schools should teach students about healthy eating habits.
• Parents and teachers need to collaborate for students’ success.
• Peer mentoring can help students adjust to middle school.
• Schools should have counselors to address students’ mental health.
• Writing in journals can improve students’ writing skills.
• Students should be taught the importance of voting from an early age.
• Environmental education is crucial for a sustainable future.
• Ancient civilizations offer valuable lessons for the modern world.
• Students benefit from learning through documentaries and films.
• Creative writing boosts imagination and communication skills.
• Schools should emphasize the importance of critical thinking.
• Robotics clubs can foster interest in science and technology.
• The education system should prioritize experiential learning.
• Schools should have programs that promote kindness and empathy.
• Learning about world religions fosters tolerance and understanding.
• Digital literacy is as important as traditional literacy.
• Daily reading time in schools can enhance vocabulary and comprehension.
• Parent-teacher meetings should be held regularly.
• Schools should reduce the emphasis on grades.
• Education on climate change is essential for younger generations.
• Schools should offer classes on basic life skills.
• Celebrating achievements, big or small, boosts students’ morale.
• Schools should have workshops on time management.
• Middle schoolers benefit from learning about careers and professions.
• Setting personal goals can drive academic success.
• Debates in school foster analytical and critical thinking.
• Learning about entrepreneurship encourages innovation.
• Schools should prioritize classes on ethics and morality.
• Students should be exposed to various forms of art.
• Science clubs can inspire future scientists and researchers.
• Middle schoolers should be educated on digital privacy.
• Learning through games makes education more engaging.
• Schools should encourage independent research projects.
• Students benefit from understanding different political systems.
• Physical activity breaks can enhance classroom focus.
• Schools should have a broader range of extracurricular activities.
• Peer feedback sessions can improve writing skills.
• Astronomy should be introduced to middle schoolers.
• Community service projects instill a sense of responsibility.
• Middle schools should offer classes on logic and reasoning.
• Real-world math problems make learning more applicable.
• Schools should provide resources for learning beyond textbooks.
• Geography lessons should include current world events.
• Middle schoolers should be educated about online scams and fraud.
• Schools should promote creativity over rote learning.
• Workshops on effective communication benefit students in the long run.
• Learning about local history connects students to their community.
• Schools should educate students on the dangers of drugs and alcohol.
• Teaching negotiation skills can be beneficial in everyday life.
• Outdoor adventure programs can boost teamwork and leadership.
• Schools should foster a love for lifelong learning.
• Middle schoolers benefit from understanding basic economics.
• Drama and theater can enhance students’ expressive skills.
• Schools should have more guest speakers from various professions.
• Learning about nutrition can promote lifelong healthy habits.

Thesis Statement Examples for 6th Grade Students

At this age, students begin to form stronger opinions and arguments. The thesis statements are simple, clear, and easy to support with evidence.

• Dogs make better pets than cats because they are more loyal and trainable.
• Reading books helps improve imagination more than watching TV.
• Video games can teach important life skills if played in moderation.
• Homework should be limited on weekends to encourage outdoor activities.
• Solar energy is better than fossil fuels for preserving the environment.
• Field trips are essential for hands-on learning in schools.
• Eating vegetables is crucial for growing kids as they provide essential nutrients.
• Winter is the best season because it brings holidays and snow sports.
• Recycling should be made compulsory in all schools.
• Swimming is the most beneficial sport for overall health in kids.

Thesis Statement Examples for 7th Grade Students

As students mature, their thesis statements can tackle more complex issues, yet remain concise and debatable.

• Online schooling can be just as effective as traditional schooling when implemented correctly.
• Cursive writing should still be taught in schools despite the rise of technology.
• Social media has more negative effects than positive ones for teenagers.
• Schools should start later in the morning to ensure students get enough sleep.
• Zoos do more harm than good by keeping animals in captivity.
• All students should learn a second language from a young age.
• Students should wear uniforms to promote equality and reduce distractions.
• Fast food consumption leads to severe health problems in young individuals.
• Art and music classes are as important as core subjects in middle school.
• Bullying in schools can have long-term mental effects on victims.

Thesis Statement Examples for 8th Grade Students

At this stage, students delve deeper into societal issues and controversies, offering a nuanced perspective in their statements.

• Climate change is the most pressing issue of our generation and requires immediate action.
• Genetic modification in food can be beneficial if regulated properly.
• Animal testing for cosmetics should be banned worldwide.
• The age for acquiring a driver’s license should be raised to 18.
• Reality TV promotes unhealthy stereotypes and should be viewed with skepticism.
• Technology addiction in teenagers is leading to decreased physical activity.
• Students should be educated about the dangers of tobacco and alcohol from a younger age.
• The internet, though beneficial, has also given rise to increasing cyberbullying cases.
• Schools should actively promote STEM subjects for girls.
• Historical monuments representing controversial figures should be preserved with context.

Middle School Thesis Statement Examples for Persuasive Essay

Persuasive essays aim to convince readers to adopt a particular viewpoint. The persuasive essay thesis statement should be compelling and offer a clear stance.

• Planting trees in urban areas is vital for maintaining air quality and community health.
• Junk food in school cafeterias contributes to childhood obesity and should be replaced.
• Digital textbooks are more efficient and eco-friendly than paper ones.
• Physical education classes should be mandatory throughout middle school.
• Restricting screen time for children encourages better sleep and healthier habits.
• Volunteering should be integrated into the school curriculum for character development.
• Parents should monitor their children’s online activities to ensure safety.
• Students should have more say in designing the school curriculum.
• Reward systems in schools can boost motivation and performance.
• Local communities should invest more in public libraries.

Middle School Thesis Statement Examples for Argumentative Essay

Argumentative essays thesis statement present arguments on both sides. The thesis states a clear position on a contentious issue.

• Animal experimentation is unjustifiable, regardless of its potential benefits to humans.
• Introducing foreign languages in early grades leads to better cognitive development.
• Surveillance cameras in schools infringe on student privacy rights.
• The benefits of space exploration far outweigh the associated costs.
• All middle schools should adopt a vegetarian menu for environmental and health reasons.
• The grading system in schools stifles creativity and individualism.
• Strict parental controls on the internet are a necessity in today’s digital age.
• Public transportation should be free for students to encourage its use.
• Corporal punishment in schools does more harm than good.
• Modern educational technology tools enhance learning more than traditional methods.

Middle School Thesis Statement Examples for Informational Essay

Informational essays present factual information. The thesis sets the stage for the topic to be explored.

• The water cycle is an essential natural process that supports life on Earth.
• Ancient Egyptian pyramids were architectural marvels and had significant cultural importance.
• Photosynthesis is the process through which plants produce their food and release oxygen.
• The Great Wall of China, built over centuries, served as protection and a symbol of power.
• Hurricanes are powerful storms that arise from specific atmospheric conditions.
• The life cycle of a butterfly consists of four stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult.
• The human skeletal system provides structure and supports bodily movements.
• Mars, often called the “Red Planet,” has intrigued scientists for potential signs of life.
• The Amazon Rainforest, the world’s largest tropical rainforest, hosts unparalleled biodiversity.
• The Internet’s invention has revolutionized communication, information access, and business.

How do you write a thesis statement for middle schoolers? – Step by Step Guide

• Understand the Purpose of a Thesis Statement : Begin by explaining to middle schoolers that a thesis statement expresses the main point of their essay and serves to guide the ideas within it. It tells the reader what to expect.
• Select a Topic : Encourage students to choose a topic they are passionate about or one they’d like to explore. The more interest they have in a topic, the easier it will be to write about.
• Ask a Question About the Topic : After selecting a topic, have them phrase it as a question. For example, if the topic is “recycling,” the question could be, “Why is recycling important for our environment?”
• Answer the Question : The answer to this question can form the basis of the thesis statement. Using the above example, an answer might be: “Recycling is essential for our environment because it reduces waste, conserves resources, and minimizes the impact on landfills.”
• Keep It Specific : Ensure that the thesis is not too vague. A good thesis provides a clear and specific point. Instead of writing, “Books are good,” they might write, “Reading books enhances vocabulary, improves concentration, and encourages empathy.”
• Limit to One or Two Sentences : A thesis should be concise. Middle schoolers should be taught to express their main idea succinctly.
• Avoid Opinion Phrases : Teach them to avoid starting their thesis with phrases like “I think” or “I believe.” The thesis should assert a fact or a stance, not merely present an opinion.
• Revise and Refine : Encourage rewriting the thesis a few times to make it stronger and clearer. As they gather more information for their essay, their thesis might need adjustments.
• Seek Feedback : Have students share their thesis statements with peers or teachers for feedback. Others can provide insight into whether the statement is clear and convincing.
• Practice Makes Perfect : Provide ample opportunities for middle schoolers to practice writing thesis statements on various topics. Over time, the process will become more intuitive.

Tips for Writing a Thesis Statement for Middle School Students

• Start Simple : Especially for younger middle school students, starting with a simple and straightforward topic can make the process less intimidating.
• Use Templates : Offering a template can be beneficial. For instance: “[Topic] is essential because of [Reason 1], [Reason 2], and [Reason 3].”
• Always Back it Up : Remind students that whatever claim they make in their thesis, they should have evidence or reasons to back it up in the essay.
• Stay Flexible : Let students know it’s okay to change their thesis as they delve deeper into a topic. Research might lead them to a different perspective.
• Be Clear and Direct : Encourage students to avoid jargon or overly complex words. Their thesis should be easily understood.
• Avoid Being Too Broad : A common mistake is making a thesis too broad. For instance, instead of saying “Pollution is bad,” they could specify, “Plastic waste harms marine life.”
• Practice Debates : Allow students to practice debating on various topics. This helps them learn to form arguments, which can translate into stronger thesis statements.
• Use Real-World Examples : Relating the thesis statement to current events or real-world issues can make the process more engaging and relevant for students.
• Stay Organized : Teach students the importance of outlining their essays. This can help them see where their thesis fits and how their arguments should be structured.
• Encourage Creativity : While the structure of a thesis has a specific format, students can still be creative in how they present their main ideas.

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Don’t Worry, Be Happy? ‘Feh’ on That.

Misery makes for good company in Shalom Auslander’s second memoir, which finds him self-deprecating, drug-dabbling, envious and, oy, middle-aged.

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FEH: A Memoir, by Shalom Auslander

That much of writing is not writing, or rewriting, or outright trashing what one has written, is a well-worn truth of the trade, fascinating maybe only to practitioners. But Shalom Auslander is a truth teller whose punim you want to pinch — at which point he’d worry that you found him fat.

Auslander’s second memoir, “Feh,” is a dark, daffy chronicle of failure and disappointment — this though his first, “Foreskin’s Lament,” was well-received and followed by novels , short stories and work in Hollywood, notably on the Showtime series “ Happyish .”

Still, he suffers — as many successful people do. “ Success is a drug ,” as Lil Uzi Vert wrote, whose effects wear off fast.

“Feh” is a 356-page explication of a particular pessimistic worldview with which Auslander has been cursed since first grade in an Orthodox yeshiva in Monsey, N.Y., though because of his prose style — lots of one-liners and crisp dialogue set off in dashes — it seems far shorter. The title is a Yiddish expression of disgust or despair that here (like “ preppy” before it ) is sometimes promoted to a noun, a resting state or even a type of person.

The antic upbringing Auslander described in “Foreskin’s Lament” now yields more anecdotes, like the time he tried on his mother’s pantyhose, unrolling them like the Torah, after concluding that Victoria’s Secret was that “women were beautiful. And I was hideous.”

“Feh” goes further into the disillusionments of adulthood, which for our troubled hero has included near-death experiences like falling asleep on a four-lane highway while driving a three-ton pickup truck, high on video-head cleaner.

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Column: The death of California’s Spanish-language newspapers leaves a void. ‘It gets filled with trash’

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When Laura Pantoja immigrated to Santa Ana from Mexico City in the early 1990s, she could choose from about a dozen local newspapers in her native language.

A literature major, she favored Unión Hispana because it was “the political paper,” sometimes printing unflattering photos of local elected officials who, editors thought, didn’t stand up for working-class Latinos.

Miniondas covered community groups and festivals, as well as city politics with a more objective lens. Azteca News was more interested in Latin American affairs than civic matters, while El Sol Latino published poetry and essays.

Then there was Rumores, which featured a bikini-clad woman on every cover while devoting its pages to salacious crimes and tales of the occult.

• This city lost its daily newspapers — and is living what comes next
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• A shrinking industry while misinformation spreads. What the numbers tell us

Long Beach looked like it had solved the local news crisis. Then reality set in

All except Miniondas were free weeklies . They helped readers navigate a new country while claiming a niche in a lucrative and highly competitive market in Orange County’s largest city, long a gateway for immigrants from Latin America.

The so-called semanarios jockeyed for position on newspaper racks in front of restaurants, mini-marts and liquor stores across town but especially on 4th Street, the downtown commercial district that catered to Latinos with beer bars , quinceañera shops and clothing stores.

“You’d pick up all the papers, take them back home and read them, and then do it again the following week,” Pantojo recalled recently.

Today, the teeming newspaper racks are almost all gone. The few that remain stand as rusting witnesses to the rise and fall of a media market that needs journalistic watchdogs more than ever, at a time when presidential candidates vie for the Latino vote and illegal immigration is a hot topic yet again .

During their heyday, Spanish-language newspapers in California thrived not only in metro areas like L.A., San José and San Diego but also in smaller cities, including Oxnard, Hanford, Pomona and Monterey.

When I began my journalism career in the early 2000s, covering Santa Ana for OC Weekly, the Spanish papers were my guide to deciphering a scrappy Latino enclave I barely knew, even though I grew up 15 minutes away in Anaheim. It was a rush for a newbie to compete with other reporters for scoops on stories that the English-language press usually followed up on without giving credit.

In addition to the semanarios, small magazines covered everything from Latin alternative music to local soccer leagues. The market was so lucrative that the Orange County Register published its own semanario , Excélsior, while The Times launched Hoy to compete with the venerable La Opinión .

My editor at the time suggested we open our own publication too. Thank God we didn’t, because those glory days crashed fast.

Pantoja volunteered to write the horoscope at Unión Hispana, then became a reporter. She covered the slew of anti-immigrant laws proposed in California during the 1990s before moving on to local issues like gang violence, housing and the creep of gentrification, until the paper closed in 2006.

The decline of Santa Ana’s Spanish-language newspapers largely mirrors that of their English counterparts, with revenue evaporating as a generation that gets information online or on social media finds no use for a print product. The move to digital has squeezed classified and display ad dollars that paid the bills. Meanwhile, the children of immigrants care little for the publications their parents once relied on.

Salinas’ last Spanish-language newspaper closed last year , and the San Diego Union-Tribune shuttered its Spanish edition in December. Today, only two Santa Ana-based Spanish-language publications remain, both monthly magazines focused on entertainment and lifestyle coverage: La Voz and a much-transformed Miniondas, which will celebrate 50 years in 2025. (Excélsior is still published online by the Register’s parent company, Southern California News Group, but it offers only stories translated from English.)

“Everyone thinks the abuse they suffer — housing, police, gang violence — happens only to them, so no one can do anything about it,” said Pantoja, 63, who now works as a community health organizer. “Nothing connects the community like newspapers.”

She still reads newspapers in English and Spanish — The Times, the San Francisco Chronicle, Mexico City’s left-leaning La Jornada — but all online and mostly about regional, national and international developments, because few local news sources remain.

“It’s a void that we as human beings can’t fill,” she said before quickly correcting herself.

“It gets filled with trash.”

A Potpourri of Papers Courts Latino Market

From his wooden desk, Fernando Velo, the 42-year-old editor and publisher of Azteca News, can look out the office window and see the publishing battle going on in downtown Santa Ana.

Sept. 9, 1991

In Orange County, the Register is a shell of its former self. The Times’ O.C. edition, which once ferociously competed with the Register , is no more. My former paper, OC Weekly, shuttered in 2019 . Only two nonprofit news publications — Voice of OC and Culture OC — cover the whole county, while L.A.-based television stations are lucky if they have one reporter for a region of 3.2 million. The Times still covers the occasional news story in O.C. and operates a community newspaper, the Daily Pilot, that covers wealthy O.C. cities including Newport Beach and Huntington Beach.

Among Latinos, this news erosion has happened even faster, both locally and nationally.

A Pew Research Center study released this spring showed that 22% of Latinos nationwide follow the news closely, compared with 43% of white people and 35% of Black people. The study also found that Latinos favor getting their news from social media more than any other ethnic group, with only 4% preferring print.

Juan Esparza Loera, the longtime editor of the Fresno Bee’s Spanish-language publication, Vida en el Valle , said at least half a dozen newspapers served Spanish speakers in the area when he joined the Bee in 1994. He opened editions in Merced, Modesto, Stockton and Sacramento.

But Esparza Loera saw the proverbial writing on the wall about a decade ago, when he covered a baile folklorico performance.

“On the way to the office, I already saw people posting photos of the event on social media,” he said. “How can you compete with that?

Today, Fresno has one Spanish-language print newspaper: Pique, which publishes monthly.

Vida en el Valle announced this month that it was going digital only. The paper, which used to have six reporters, is down to Esparza Loera and one other person.

Now, he said, “it’s just survival.”

Periodicos Seek Readers, Shelf Space : Journalism: Outside post offices, markets and bakeries a number of Spanish-language papers are battling for circulation.

In one hand, Norma Yanez carried a sack of groceries.

Nov. 18, 1990

The first periodical in Southern California was bilingual: the Los Angeles Star , which began publishing in 1851. Its Spanish content proved so popular that Star employee Francisco Ramirez spun off his own publication, the all-Spanish El Clamor Público , four years later.

“Every time there was a new community being built, you would start with a church, a post office and a newspaper,” said Manny Escamilla, who sits on Santa Ana’s historic resources commission and is the former head of the city’s history room. He has found evidence of Spanish-language publications in his hometown dating to the 1910s.

Like Pantoja, the 38-year-old vividly remembers semanarios available all over town, though he never picked them up because he preferred to read in English. Today, he treasures the clippings of family weddings and baptisms from Miniondas — including one of his own baptism — that relatives have kept in photo albums.

“Those types of stories and narratives only existed in those spaces — they told a very different side of the city,” Escamilla said. “If you only tell it through Anglo papers, that history is very skewed because of the historically conservative politics in Orange County .”

He mentioned an upcoming Santa Ana ballot measure that will ask whether residents who are not citizens should be allowed to vote in city elections .

“If you had a local, vibrant press, you’d have this much bigger discussion about it,” he said. “There would be front-page headlines and more people engaged.”

Instead, he says, most Santa Ana residents, Spanish-speaking and not, don’t even know about the measure. Too many people are instead fixated on national and international news from Facebook and YouTube — including his Spanish-speaking father. “He uses them more than I do,” Escamilla said with a bitter chuckle.

Kirk Whisler, founding president of the National Assn. of Hispanic Publications, is finishing a survey of more than 10,000 Latinos about their consumption of Latino-centric publications in English and Spanish. Preliminary results indicate that while 43% of readers want more local news, 47% would like to see more “success stories,” and an astounding 91% seek articles about health issues.

“The [Spanish-language newspapers] that are about lifestyle have stayed strong,” Whisler said, “while the ones that are primarily news have lost that market share.”

He brought up Miniondas, long seen as the most reputable of Santa Ana’s semanarios . It was founded in 1979 by Mexican immigrant Sergio Velazquez, and its circulation grew to 55,000 in the early 2000s. At its peak, it released two issues a week and published a separate entertainment publication, Farandula USA. For a while, it even included a few pages in English to try to grab the assimilated children of its core readers.

Velazquez sold his company to real estate agent Sandra Cervantes in 2012. In a news release announcing the ownership change, Cervantes vowed to take Miniondas “to the next level” with “information to the community that is relevant and informative.”

The most recent edition had a full-page story on Rihanna serving as a spokesperson for J’adore perfume, a piece about quarterback Tom Brady being inducted into the New England Patriots Hall of Fame and an essay praising Pixar’s “Inside Out” franchise for allowing people to speak freely about emotions. Only the essay included a byline. There was no hint of Miniondas’ past as a paper covering Santa Ana.

“In that evolution, it’s sad that Sandra didn’t prioritize keeping the articles that Sergio had had,” Whisler said. “I know you’ve still got that first-generation base there, and they’re not really being served the way they once were.”

Reached by phone, Cervantes declined to speak about Miniondas. Its only local competitor, La Voz, which has a similar mix of stories, didn’t respond to multiple requests for comment.

After talking to Pantoja and Escamilla, I drove around Santa Ana to look for a newspaper rack — any rack.

I walked around Bristol Street and McFadden Avenue, an unofficial Santa Ana town square where Escamilla once left ceramic bears in the racks so they wouldn’t look as empty — nothing.

I passed by El Toro Carniceria, which Pantoja once favored because nearly all of Santa Ana’s semanarios were available — nada. I drove to a Norms where newspaper boxes for The Times, Register, La Opinión and Excélsior used to greet diners as they entered — all gone.

At Novy Ranch Market downtown, I found three empty racks and another filled with untouched copies of El Clasificado, a Los Angeles-based Spanish-language version of the Pennysaver.

I then went to my local Northgate Gonzalez market, where I found Mina Beltrán sitting in her walker next to two newspaper racks. She flipped through a copy of El Aviso, another Los Angeles-based entertainment magazine.

The 71-year-old Mexican immigrant from the state of Guerrero said she would read newspapers and magazines regularly — her favorite was Azteca News “because the stories were well-written” — but stopped long ago “because they disappeared.” Nowadays, she gets her news mostly from television, radio “and whatever my friends tell me.”

Beltrán was reading El Aviso only because she was waiting for her daughter to finish shopping. With no smartphone to scroll, she tried to find something to enjoy in the glossy pages — an article about flying fishes, the horoscopes, a feature on male yeast infections.

After about five minutes, she put the magazine back on its rack and sat in silence.

More to Read

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Gustavo Arellano is a columnist for the Los Angeles Times, covering Southern California everything and a bunch of the West and beyond. He previously worked at OC Weekly, where he was an investigative reporter for 15 years and editor for six, wrote a column called ¡Ask a Mexican! and is the author of “Taco USA: How Mexican Food Conquered America.” He’s the child of two Mexican immigrants, one of whom came to this country in the trunk of a Chevy.

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